Step 1: Basic Considerations

Probably the greatest challenge in remodeling a bathroom is figuring out how to achieve the style and build in the features you want within the limits of what is probably the smallest room in the house. A second limiting factor is the location of existing plumbing pipes and electrical wiring. Remodeling a bathroom is relatively easy if you don't have to move them. If you make radical changes in the existing layout, you'll need to investigate whether or not you can build what you want without making structural changes.

Keep in mind that you may need a building permit, depending on the scope of your project. If so, you'll probably have to submit a detailed plan of your proposed project. Before you begin planning your new bathroom, always check with your local building department and find out what codes, specifications and requirements you'll have to meet.

Step 2: Planning a New Bathroom

The first step in planning your new design is to make a detailed sketch of your existing design (Fig. 2). Use a sheet of graph paper with four squares per inch, and draw a floor plan (in other words, a bird's eye view) to scale. Make each square represent 3", i.e., 1" equals 1', and draw in:

all wall detail, plus the locations of any doors and windows;
the width and length of your floor cabinets and bathtub;
the distance from the nearest wall to the center of the toilet and the centers of all sink drains; and
the locations of all electrical outlets, switches and fixtures.
As you make your sketch, use an architect's scale to precisely locate any components that do not fall on exact 3" increments.

FIXTURES AND COMPONENTS–It is beyond the scope of this document to provide extensive style ideas or discuss specific fixtures. We suggest that you visit your local home center's show room, contact a designer or architect and consult how-to books such as Sunset's Bathroom Remodeling Handbook.

Once you have a general idea of the style you want to incorporate into your new bathroom, the next step is to decide on the fixtures. The first place is to start is the bathtub. A standard builder's bathtub is 30" wide, 60" long and typically about 15" deep. But you can go up from there, to soaking tubs 36" deep, square or sunken tubs, whirlpools or even free-standing clawfoot tubs. Tub surrounds range from one-piece folding fiberglass units to five-piece assemblies, and doors may swing, slide or fold.

Step 3: Determining the Final Design

Once you have a rough idea of what fixtures you want, go to your supplier and measure them to get their outside dimensions. When you begin sketching out your new bathroom, cut out cardboard templates of each fixture to the same scale as your sketch. Lay the templates over the sketch of your existing bathroom and trace the walls and the locations of any components you know you will not move. Then begin planning your changes.

LAYOUT–Minimum clearances vary by local building codes, so you'll need to check with the building department before you design. There are four common types of bathroom layouts:

A one-wall bathroom has the tub, sink(s) and toilet all along one wall. This layout is generally the most economical–and generally the least interesting design.

An L-shaped bathroom (Fig. 6) usually has the vanity/sink and the toilet along one side wall, with the bathtub against the back wall. This arrangement reduces the "hallway" look, and is as cost-effective as a one-wall bathroom because the tub supply and drain lines can be located in the same wall as the other fixtures.

Step 4: Doing the Finish Work

Use the following checklist to guide you through the preparation, design and construction process.

Step 1: Consider How You Use Your Kitchen

How many people are in your household who use the kitchen? The answer to this question will determine how much use your kitchen gets, and how much traffic there is likely to be in the kitchen at any one time.

Do two or more cooks typically work at the same time? If so, you may want extra counter space and/or an extra sink.

Do you entertain frequently–and do you typically have formal or informal gatherings? If you entertain a lot, you may want to open up the kitchen/living room area into a great room that lets you be part of the party while you're working.

What other activities commonly occur in the kitchen? Some houses have a laundry closet in the kitchen. Some people want a wet bar, a breakfast bar or even a desk for writing or computer work.

Do you have any special needs? Is a user exceptionally short or tall and uncomfortable working at standard-height counters for long periods of time? Do you have a disabled or elderly household member who may have special needs?

This, obviously, is not a complete list of the general considerations in kitchen planning–the list is nearly infinite. But before you begin designing, think about who uses the kitchen and how they use it.

Step 2: Think about the features you want

For example:

Do you need an island (and have room for it), a peninsula or a breakfast nook?
Would you fill a pantry?
Would you rather have a stainless steel sink or enameled cast iron?
Do you use a microwave for major cooking or just to heat up cups of tea?
Do you prefer cooking with gas or electricity?
Do you want a combination oven-and-range or a cooktop with a wall oven?
Do you use enough small appliances that you could use an appliance garage to store them?

The fewer structural and mechanical changes you make, the less you'll spend. But that doesn't mean that all those changes cost a lot of money. You'll need the advice of licensed professionals to make final decisions, but you can at least get a rough idea of how much extra major changes would cost by answering the following questions:

Is the wall you want to move a load-bearing wall? Load-bearing walls support the structure of the house, and moving them is a complex job for a professional. Typically, an interior load-bearing wall runs the length of the house, at about the center of the structure.
What rooms are directly above and below the kitchen? If the rooms above and below are finished, it'll be a lot more difficult to reroute plumbing pipes, heating ducts and electrical wires.
Does your new design require that you move existing doors and/or windows? If so, this makes the job more difficult, because exterior walls are always load-bearing.

Step 3: Considering Styles

The next step–and the most fun–is to think about style. Chances are, you've seen kitchens that you like, in magazines, friends' homes, etc. The first question to ask is whether the style you like best will fit with your home. You may have loved European cabinets in the magazine, but they might not look as good in your Queen Anne Victorian.

Also, consider what kind of color changes you'd like to make–and whether your ideal colors would necessitate buying new appliances. When you choose colors, think of them in relation to surrounding rooms and try to find colors that complement the rest of the house.

Finally, consider your budget and any other remodeling that you might want to do. Sometimes, related projects are easier and cheaper when done at the same time as the kitchen.

Step 4: Most Kitchens Are Designed Around 4 Work Areas

The Cleanup Center around the sink should have at least 18" to 30" on one side, and 48" to 54" on the other, to allow enough room to stack dishes, pans and utensils. Always plan for at least 12" between the sink and the nearest corner, measured from the front of the counter.

The Cooking Center around the range requires 12" minimum on one side of the range, and 15" to 24" on the other side, again with 12" minimum to the nearest corner. Microwaves and built-in ovens should have at least 15" to 18" counter space on the right side (assuming the door is hinged on the left side).

The Storage Center around the refrigerator needs 15" to 18" on the handle side of the refrigerator, to set food.

The Mixing/Preparation Center should be handy to pans, bowls and utensils, and should consist of at least 42" to 84" of free counter space.
If space permits, some designers also include a serving center–another 36" to 84" of free counter space to set bowls and pans.

As you design, you'll also want to plan for the following minimum clearances so you'll have room to work:

There should be at least a 42" clearance from the front edge of the counter top to the nearest table or island.
Leave at least 20" from the front edge of the dishwasher door (when open) to the nearest obstruction, so you'll have room to load and unload.
Plan for at least 26" between the kitchen work area and the nearest traffic path.
Allow 36" between the nearest obstruction and an eating table, so there is room to pull a chair away from the table.

Step 5: The Work Triangle

Kitchen layouts are based on a concept called the work triangle. The work triangle consists of imaginary lines that connect the refrigerator, the range and the sink. For maximum comfort and efficiency, the three legs of the work triangle should total between 23' and 26'.

There are four basic kitchen layouts the one-wall or galley, the corridor, the L-shaped and the U-shaped. There are, of course, a nearly infinite variety of layouts, but most are based on these four.

Step 6: Selecting Cabinets 

Cabinets can also be divided into basic types. Assuming that you're considering modular (pre-manufactured) cabinets rather than custom, the widths will run in 3" increments from 9" up through 36". The standard height of a base cabinet is 34-1/2", and the standard depth is 24".

Wall cabinets are 12" deep (except for specialty cabinets designed to be installed over the refrigerator), and come in the same 3" increments. Standard heights are 12", 15" 18", 30", and 36". Wall cabinets are installed so the bottom of the cabinet is 54" above the floor (about 18" above the countertop). The height you select should depend on your ceiling height and how tall you are–there's no point in buying tall cabinets that reach to the ceiling if you can't get up to get items in and out of the top shelves.

Step 1:

HORIZONTAL DIMENSIONS:

1)  Each wall from corner to corner.

2) From the nearest corner to the outside edge of each door or window casing.

3) The overall width of the doors and windows, including the casing.

4) From the nearest corner to the centers of water supply lines, drain lines and gas feed lines.

5) From the nearest corner to the centers of electrical outlets and switches.

VERTICAL DIMENSIONS:

6) From the floor to the ceiling.
7) From the floor to the bottom edge of window stools or casings.
8) From the ceiling to the top edge of door and window casings.

Once you have those dimensions, you're ready to do a basic layout. First, make a few copies of your sketch, so you can play with different ideas. You can also make cardboard cutouts of your appliances, sink and basic cabinet sizes (to scale), and move them around on your sketch. Decide on the general location of each of the work centers. Make sure that the layout fits general kitchen planning guidelines, and that no structural or other considerations prevent you from building your layout

Step 2:

Next, determine the rough position of the major appliances (refrigerator, range and ovens) and the sink. Double check the layout to make sure you've allowed the proper amount of counter space in each work center, as outlined above. Also, double check to make sure your work triangle is within guidelines.

Plan a sink base cabinet under the sink, then choose the types of cabinets that will go near each appliance. Work from the nearest corner to the sink and each appliance, sizing the cabinets so you are left with a gap at the end that is less than 3". You'll use a filler strip that matches the cabinet finish to fill those gaps.

Make sure each type of cabinet fits the need at that work center–mixing bowl and utensil storage near the mixing/preparation center, cooking utensils near the range, and dish storage near the sink, for example.

Finally, add up the materials you will need–cabinets, countertops, appliances, electrical, plumbing and heating supplies, light fixtures, fan and all the surface materials such as floor coverings, wallboard, wallpaper and paint.

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

Step 1: PREPARING THE SURFACE FOR LAMINATE PLASTIC

Laminated plastic sheets of 1/16" thickness are recommended for a flat work surface. You can use laminated plastic of 1/32" thickness on vertical surfaces.

Thoroughly sand and clean the surface where plastic laminate is to be applied (Fig. 1). Remove any paint or varnish before applying the laminated plastic.

Most manufactured countertops are made using a high-density particle board. However, regular particle board and even plywood make ideal bases for plastic laminates.

Step 2:  CUTTING LAMINATED PLASTIC

You can cut plastic laminate material with a circular saw, saber saw, backsaw or utility knife. The saw blade should be a fine-tooth blade (Fig. 2). A strip of masking tape placed where the cut line is to be made helps prevent chipping and makes the line easier to see.

When using a power circular saw or saber saw, cut from the back side of the laminate. These saws cut on the upstroke. Cutting from the back will help prevent chipping. On hand saws, cut from the front side at a low angle.

Important: Always cut the sheets of laminated plastic slightly oversized to allow for trimming.

Special laminate cutting blades are available to use with utility knives (Fig. 3). Use a straightedge or a steel square to guide the knife for a smooth and even cut.

Score the sheet of laminated plastic with the utility knife. Then snap it on the scored line by lifting the shorter end and applying slight pressure (Fig. 4).

You can also cut laminated plastic sheets with a fine-tooth hand saw (Fig. 5). The type of cutting tool you use depends on how big the job is.

Step 3:  APPLYING LAMINATED PLASTICS

Usually, you can apply laminated plastics with contact cement. Epoxy adhesives can be used, but contact cements are recommended.

Use coarse sandpaper to roughen the surface to be covered. Clean away the sanding residue with a light brush or with compressed air.

After sanding, brush the contact cement onto the counter surface (Fig. 6). Also apply a smooth and even layer of contact cement to the back of the clean laminate sheet. Let both surfaces dry. Check the contact cement label for the recommended drying time. The general rule is the cement should be dry to the touch. A weaker bond will result if you wait too long.

Use extreme care when laying the sheets. Remember, 50 percent to 75 percent of the bonding strength of contact cement is present in the first contact. Make sure the pieces are accurately positioned before the glued areas touch each other.

You may need to apply two to three coats of contact cement for the trim strips along the counter edges (Fig. 7).

Step 4: FINISHING OFF THE JOB

When the laminate is correctly positioned, remove the dowel rods one at a time as you bond the two pieces together.

Use a roller to apply pressure to the newly laid sheets of laminated plastic (Fig. 12). Roll the entire surface thoroughly to eliminate air pockets and to be sure the plastic sheet is firmly attached to the surface at all points.

If the plastic laminate you are using is not large enough to do the entire job, you will need to make a seam. To do this, first bond the larger of the two pieces into place.

Step 1:  PURCHASE THE CORRECT FAUCET

There are many sizes, types and styles of faucets. Be sure you purchase the correct faucet when replacing an existing one since many faucets are not interchangeable.

Before purchasing a replacement faucet, take an exact measurement of the holes for the faucet, center to center (Fig. 1). Also, remove the old faucet and take it along to the store when purchasing the new fixture.

There are many different types of mixer faucets. Use care in selecting the correct one–the style is optional, but the size must be correct.

Before installing the new faucet, carefully read the manufacturer's instructions for installation. It's important to follow them exactly.

Step 2:  USE THE CORRECT TOOLS

It's important to use the proper tools when removing stubborn plumbing fixtures. Fig. 2 shows the variety of wrenches designed for specific plumbing jobs.

You'll usually need two pipe wrenches (Stillson wrenches) on a plumbing job. One is used for holding, the other for turning. Use pipe wrenches only on pipes. The teeth in the jaws of pipe wrenches bite into the metal and can mar chrome-finished nuts and pipe.

Open-end wrenches and adjustable wrenches have smooth jaws and can be used for square or hex nuts. These wrenches are ideal for working with the interior parts of faucets and valves.

A closet spud wrench is a special thin wrench made to fit into tight places (Fig. 2).

You can use strap wrenches instead of a pipe wrench when working with chrome-coated pipe if a regular pipe wrench might mar the surface.

Vise grip wrenches are ideal for holding and working with pipe of small diameter.

Use basin wrenches to remove or tighten nuts and hose couplings under sinks and lavatories. Its alternate positions enable you to reach nuts that would ordinarily be inaccessible to other wrenches.

Step 3: CONVERTING FROM IRON PIPE TO COPPER TUBING

In most cases, you'll want to convert from iron pipe to plastic or copper. Check your local code. Both copper and plastic require no threading.

Attach copper pipe to threaded pipe with a transition union (Fig. 3). Half of the union is threaded onto the old iron pipe. The other half is soldered to the copper pipe. The two halves are then threaded together. This type of fitting is also available for connecting iron to plastic and copper to plastic using solvent cement or mechanical connections.

Step 4:  REPLACING FAUCETS WITH SOLDERED ENDS

To replace an ordinary faucet with a soldered end, first remove the old faucet by applying heat or cutting. Clean the end of the pipe thoroughly.

Remove the stem of the faucet to protect the seat washer (Fig. 4). Apply heat to the pipe with an ordinary propane heat torch. Then, apply solder and reassemble the faucet. Use a solder that has no lead.

You can apply an ordinary faucet of the same type to threaded pipe by applying a pipe compound or Teflon™ tape to the pipe threads and then attaching the faucet to the threads.

Step 5:  INSTALLING 4" FAUCET WITHOUT POP-UP DRAIN

The 4" lavatory faucet without a pop-up drain is relatively simple to install. Place plumber's putty in the groove just underneath the chrome framing to provide a tight seal (Fig. 5).

Insert the shanks of the lavatory faucet into the holes of the lavatory. Attach the locknuts and the washer to the shank and tighten them firmly into place.

Remove any excess putty from the base of the faucet. Connect the shank to the water supply and tighten.

Step 6: INSTALLING 4" FAUCET WITH POP-UP DRAIN

Installing the 4" lavatory faucet with pop-up drain is more challenging.

Start by carefully reading the instructions that came with the faucet.

First, remove the old faucet and pop-up drain (Fig. 6).

Insert the new faucet into position. Add putty in the groove around the base of the faucet.

Slip the washer over the shank and thread the locknut up the shank, placing the faucet loosely in position.

Insert the drain plunger into the center hole and affix the adjustment bar to the drain plunger.

Place the pop-up drain body in position and attach it to the adjustment bar. Tighten all nuts and attach the faucet to the water system. Attach the pop-up drain body to the drain system.

Place the stopper in the drain body and work the drain plunger. Make any adjustments by moving the lever assembly up or down in the holes provided.

Step 7: INSTALLING COMBINATION FAUCET WITH POP-UP DRAIN

Installing the combination lavatory faucet with pop-up drain is much the same as the 4" lavatory faucet. (Fig. 7)

Read and follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully for the step-by-step installation.

The main difference in this installation is that most models require the faucet handles, flanges and faucets to be removed. The assembly is then inserted from underneath the lavatory frame.

Step 8: INSTALLING COMMON SINK FAUCETS

Most sink faucets are of the mixer variety, where the hot and cold water are mixed and brought into the sink through one swing spout.

The typical mixer-type faucet also comes equipped with a spray hose (Fig. 8).

Mixer faucets for kitchen sinks are usually 8", although they are also available in 6" and 4" sizes. There are two basic types–the exposed deck, shown in Fig. 8, and the concealed deck. The exposed deck has a chrome housing above the sink, while the concealed deck has only a flange exposed just below the faucet handles.

All faucets come with manufacturers' installation instructions. Read these instructions carefully and follow each step for a good installation.

If instructions are unavailable, you can follow the same basic instructions given for installing a lavatory faucet.

Step 9:  INSTALLING BATH AND SHOWER FAUCETS

The first challenge in installing bath and shower faucets is getting the faucet assemblies behind the wall.

Most home builders provide a rear access panel. By removing this panel, you can connect fittings without defacing the bathroom wall. These panels are usually located in closets in back of the tub.

The two-valve faucet assembly is the most common assembly for bathtubs. If instructions are unavailable, study Fig. 9 to help you make such an installation without too much trouble.

The two-valve shower assembly is the basic faucet arrangement used only for shower assemblies.

This arrangement is used when the faucets are installed separately and apart from the taps that supply water to the tub (Fig. 10).

The three-valve diverter with shower head and spout provides water both to the shower and to the tub.

With this assembly, the hot and cold water taps are turned to bring water into the tub. Then, when the proper mix of hot and cold is reached, the diverter valve is turned to bring the water through the shower head (Fig. 11).

There are two basic types of two-valve diverters. One has a twin ell diverter spout (Fig. 12). The water is first mixed by letting it run into the tub. It is then diverted through the shower head by the twin ell diverter spout.

Another type of two-valve diverter has a shower head and ejector tee diverter (Fig. 13). This works in basically the same way as the twin ell, but the water is diverted by means of a tee rather than by the twin ell.

Many older homes have lead pipe water systems. Many newer homes have copper pipe water systems that have been soldered together with solder containing lead.

Step 10: LEAD WARNING

Lead can leach into the drinking water system from the corrosion of materials in plumbing and distribution systems that contain lead. Exposure to lead may cause brain and nervous disorders, anemia, high blood pressure, kidney and reproductive problems, decreased red blood cells, slower reflexes and even death. The lead collects in the kidneys, liver and brain. Unlike many other chemicals, once lead enters a person's system, it cannot be removed. Exposure to even small amounts over a period of years can cause irreversible damage.

When working on a plumbing project, always use lead-free solder.

In normal use, if it has been six hours since the water system was used, turn on the water and let it run for a few minutes before drawing water to use for drinking or cooking. However, there is no need to waste this water. It may be used for such things as watering plants.

Additional information is available from the Environmental Protection Agency's Safe Drinking Water hotline at 1-800-426-4791. It can also provide information about certified laboratories that test for lead in drinking water.

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

If the drain is sluggish but not completely clogged, turn on the hot water tap for 5 to 10 minutes. This sometimes opens the drain.

If running hot water does not open the sluggish drain, try an environmentally safe chemical drain opener. Such cleaners are available in several forms, and they are made primarily from caustic soda with bauxite and other ingredients. Read the label on the drain cleaner and follow manufacturer's instructions.

After using any chemical cleaner, flush it from the drain pipes by allowing hot water to run for at least 10 minutes.

In some cases, using a simple suction cup will open a clogged sink drain.

First, remove the basket strainer from the drain (Fig. 1).

Run hot water until it stands about 2" deep in the sink.

Take a suction cup plunger and pump it up and down directly over the clogged drain. The water in the sink provides a seal. If the suction cup does not clear the drain in a few minutes, you will probably be forced to remove some of the pipes to get the job done.

If you cannot open the drain with the suction cup, set a pail underneath the sink trap and remove the cleanout plug and washer (Fig. 2). If the drain is only slightly clogged, a few quick probes with a screwdriver may solve the problem.

If the screwdriver doesn't open it, use a snake or drain auger through the pipe. A drain auger works best if you rotate it, feed it in a short distance, and then rotate it again. This enables the drain auger to be inserted deeply into the pipe.

After the drain pipe is opened, replace the cleanout plug and washer. Run scalding water through the pipe to carry away any accumulations.

If the lavatory drain is only slightly clogged, try opening it by removing the drain stopper and probing for hair and other debris with a short piece of wire.

If this doesn't work, try a plunger. Since your lavatory drain has an overflow outlet, you'll need to plug it with tape or rags before using a plunger (Fig. 3). After plugging the overflow drain, use the plunger exactly as you would in opening an ordinary sink.

If the wire and plunger treatments do not work, use a sink auger or plumber's snake. You may be able to do this without removing the sink trap (Fig. 4).

If none of these efforts works, set a pail under the lavatory and remove the trap (Fig. 5). Cover the chrome nut with tape or a rag to prevent marring by the wrench.

Loosen the thumbscrew on the plumber's snake and move the handle back about 3' (Fig. 6). Insert the snake into the drainpipe, rotate the auger, feed it in, then rotate again. This allows you to drive the snake deeply into the drainpipe.

To unstop bathtub drains, try the running hot water, the plunger, or the chemical method. Remember to plug the overflow outlet before using a plunger.

If the chemical, the plunger, or the hot water treatments do not open the clogged drain, you'll need to remove the trap located under the tub. If the tub is on the first floor with crawl space or basement access to the pipes, this can be relatively easy.

In older homes this trap will be a drum trap (Fig. 7) which has a removable top. This top often becomes corroded and may be very difficult to remove. Apply penetrating oil to the top and let it set for a few minutes. Then use a large wrench to remove the top. If that fails, a hammer and punch may be necessary to do the job.

Tubs in newer homes usually have a tubular trap. The bottom portion of this trap can be removed by loosing the two large nuts that hold it in place. Prior to loosing these nuts hang a pail under the trap to catch any water that is in the trap.

After you have removed the trap or the cover check for debris in the trap itself and in the pipes leading to and from the trap. In tub drains clogs of hair and soap are quite commonplace. A pair of rubber gloves might be a good idea here.

After you have removed the clog and resealed the drain, run hot water through the drain for a few minutes. This will allow you to check the operation of the drain and to flush any remaining debris from the drain.

In most cases you can open a clogged toilet using a force ball-type plunger (A, Fig. 9). A regular suction cup plunger will seldom do the job (B). A force ball-type plunger exerts a great deal more pressure for cleaning toilets than the regular type.

Be sure to have sufficient water in the toilet bowl when using the plunger.

If the plunger does not clear the clogged drain, use a closet auger (Fig. 10). Start the auger or snake into the bowl and continue to crank it until it becomes tight. This cranking and pulling action will usually bring up the object that is causing the stoppage.

If the closet auger is not effective, use a small snake in the same way as described for opening lavatory drains.

If neither the plunger, the closet auger, nor the snake removes the obstruction, you may need to remove the toilet from the floor, turn it upside down, and force the obstruction out from the top or bottom.

If you must remove the toilet from the floor, use either a wax preformed O-ring or fresh plumber's putty in reseating the toilet.

In older construction there were three basic causes for clogged sewers. These were excessive mortar (Fig. 11) left at soil pipe joints, roots (Fig. 12) from trees and plants and broken pipes.

In both new and old construction, broken pipes (Fig. 13) allow foreign matter to enter the drainage system. This can often cause clogging.

Clogged sewers in newer construction are often limited to broken pipes and poor design or construction. Using the wrong fittings during construction or allowing too little slope in the drain run can cause the drain to become clogged.

To open a clogged sewer, set a container just underneath the cleanout plug (Fig. 14). Loosen the plug just enough to permit water and waste to flow into the container.

When all the water and waste have drained out, remove the plug and insert a cleanout tape.

Rotate the reel clockwise as you unroll it, and push the tape forward into the sewer pipes (Fig. 14).

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

Before purchasing your new toilet, measure the distance from the rearmost bowl hold-down bolts to the finished wall behind the toilet. This is called the toilet's rough-in (Fig. 2). Most toilets are designed with a 12" rough-in. Ask your retailer for help if your rough-in varies.

The first step is to turn off the toilet's water supply. Then flush the toilet to empty its tank, holding the trip-lever down to let all the water run out. Sop out any remaining water in the tank and bowl with a sponge–make sure they're both empty

Use a large, adjustable open-end wrench to unthread the coupling nut between the toilet tank and its water supply. You may need to hold the fill valve with pliers from inside the tank to keep it from turning.

Now you're ready to remove the original tank. Most are held to the bowl by two long bolts. The nuts are located beneath the flange at the rear of the toilet bowl. Fig. 11 shows how to work with these.

With the bolts out, you can lift the tank clear of the bowl.

If your toilet tank mounts to the wall and feeds the bowl with a large, sweeping elbow, first remove the elbow. Use a trap wrench or water pump pliers for the slip jam nuts. Or, you can simply saw the elbow with a hacksaw.

Now you can remove the tank from the wall. As you unscrew the tank from the wall, support it so it doesn't fall.

Next, take out the toilet bowl. Typically, the bowl is fastened to the floor with two hold-down bolts and nuts beneath trim caps. Some toilet bowls have four hold-downs.

Pry off each trim cap to expose the bolts and nuts (Fig. 3).

Unscrew the nuts. If you have trouble, you can saw them off. A mini-hacksaw works best, or you can use a regular hacksaw. To protect the bowl's finish from the saw teeth, use masking tape.

Now loosen the bowl/seat unit by rocking it to break its seal with the floor and toilet flange. Once loosened, you can lift the bowl and carry it out of the house. Be sure to hold the bowl level to avoid spilling any trap-sealing water. You may need help to lift the tank and bowl together. Lift it properly with your back straight and put the weight on your legs.

Stuff rags in the toilet flange opening to keep sewer gases out of the house and debris out of the soil pipe while you work (Fig 4).

To get ready for the new toilet, first do a complete cleanup. Remove any old putty and wax from the floor and toilet flange. You can use a screwdriver or putty knife. Clean the floor thoroughly in case the new toilet's footprint is different. Remove the old hold-down bolts–don't reuse them. You may want to clean and paint the wall behind the toilet. If you're going to replace the bathroom floorcovering, this is an excellent opportunity.

At this point, install any new water supply plumbing you plan to add. A new fixture supply valve and flexible riser tube is easy to install and offers shutoff convenience later. The valve attaches to a short length of water supply pipe coming from the wall or floor. Have the riser tube handy but out of the way of the new tank.

Also, inspect the toilet flange for sound condition. It should stick up about 1/2" from the finished bathroom floor.

Temporarily set the toilet in position on the floor over the flange to check for levelness. Check it front-to-back and side-to-side. If necessary, shim under the bowl with non-rusting metal washers.

Install a new pair of toilet hold-down bolts. If there are holes or slots for the bolts in the toilet flange, they should be inserted in the openings (Fig. 6). In a cast iron piping system, the hold-downs screw directly into the wood floor. Whatever the situation, your retailer should have them. Don't try to use ordinary bolts. Install the bolts so they are the same distance from the rear wall.

Toilet installation goes pretty much the reverse of removal. Handle the bowl and tank with care, since they can crack and chip easily.

Start by inverting the new bowl (or bowl/tank unit) onto a thick, protective padding of newspapers on the floor.

Seal the toilet to its soil pipe flange at the floor by placing a ready-made wax toilet ring gasket over the bowl's outlet horn (Fig. 7). The gasket should be room temperature, and the flat face should go against the bowl. If the gasket has a sleeve, it should face away from the bowl. Don't try to reuse the old gasket–install a new one.

Two kinds of wax gaskets are available: those with plastic sleeves and those without.

The bowl-to-floor joint must be sealed around the edge of the bowl's base, too. You can lay a bead of plumber's putty so it will be squeezed between the toilet and floor. Or, use about 2 lbs. of plaster. Another choice is to caulk the joint with bathtub caulk/sealant. This is probably the easiest method. Ask your retailer to recommend a good caulk for this.

Remove the rag from the toilet flange opening. Now you're ready to set the bowl.

Hold the bowl upright several inches off the floor so its outlet horn is directly above the toilet flange. Then lower it gently (Fig. 8). The hold-down bolts should pass through their openings in the bowl base, and the wax gasket and toilet flange should meet.

To set the bowl onto the floor as well as onto its gasket, rock it carefully from front to back and side to side while pushing down hard. You can rotate it a few degrees each way, too. This forces out the excess wax. As the bowl meets the floor, make sure it is level and square with the rear wall. Don't raise the bowl from the floor while making adjustments, or you'll have to go through the setting process all over again and replace the waxing.

Drop washers over the hold-down bolts and thread on the brass nuts. Tighten the nuts finger-tight only (Fig. 8). Using a wrench at this point can break the bowl. Re-check both nuts for tightness after several days of use.

If the bowl has front-mounting holes, install two toilet studs with washers and nuts into the floor for the front two holes.

If the toilet tank hardware comes separately, install it. Remember that the trip lever nut probably has left-hand threads.

Now take the rubber spud washer, which fits between the tank and bowl, and set it squarely into the flush valve opening in the bottom of the tank. The washer goes beveled side out (Fig. 10). If there is a rubber tank cushion, set that in place on the bowl. Then pick up the tank and lower it gently into place on the back of the bowl.

Install the two long brass tank-mounting bolts from inside the tank, sliding them down through the aligned holes. Place two rubber washers against the tank and bowl (Fig. 12). Draw the washers and nuts up gently and evenly until they are snug. This finishes your bowl installation.

Connect the tank's water supply to the inlet valve on the bottom left-hand side of the tank (as you face it). You'll probably have a coupling nut for doing this. The nut threads onto the inlet and works perfectly with a flat-ended riser tube. Don't use any pipe dope on these threads.

Turn on the water and observe the toilet tank as it fills. If there are any leaks, further tightening should cure them. Check to see that the tank fills to the correct level, about 3/4" below the top of the overflow tube.

Tighten the bowl hold-down bolts one turn (no more) beyond hand-tight. Cut off the ends, if necessary, and install the trim caps. You can fill their recesses with plumber's putty (or bathtub caulk/sealant) and press them down over the bolts. Clean up any material that oozes out.

Then, smooth and clean up the excess sealant around the bowl's base.

Now you can test-flush the toilet, checking for water leaks at the floor.

Install the new toilet seat and tank cover, and your installation is complete.

Nail heads can rust and create spots on painted surfaces in your home. This problem is caused by using uncoated steel nails where excessive moisture exists under the paint (Fig. 1). The uncoated steel nails obviously cannot be removed, but you can correct the moisture problem.

Try to locate the source of excessive moisture. Check for leakage from the eaves, evaporation from nearby plumbing pipes or sweating caused by heat from a bathroom or kitchen. If you can locate the source of moisture, try eliminating the problem by shutting off the condensation that causes the moisture.

Remove any stained paint around all nail heads by sanding the area or using a wire brush. Sand clear down to the nail head, then sand the nail head itself to remove the built-up rust.

Use a nail punch to countersink all nail heads approximately 1/8" below the wood surface.

Apply one even layer of undercoat over the countersunk nail and the area around it.

After the area is primed, fill the countersunk hole with a good grade of caulking compound. Allow the compound to dry, then apply one coat of a good grade of outside house paint. After adequate drying time, apply a second coat. Use these steps to correct the problem.

Step 2:  PEELING PAINT UNDER THE OVERHANG OF A ROOF

Paint sometimes peels under the overhang of a roof or in other areas of your home that are protected from weather. Such peeling is usually caused by a build-up of "salt" deposits, which are normally washed away by rain in exposed areas.

Your first step is to remove the peeling paint by sanding the surface thoroughly.

After sanding, prepare a solution using a cleaner that leaves no film such as trisodium phosphate and water. Wash the sanded surface with this solution. Rinse the area with clear water and allow it to dry.

After the surface has dried completely, apply two coats of a good grade of undercoating paint.

When the undercoat has thoroughly dried, apply a coat of a top-quality house paint. Under some conditions, two finish coats may be required. This treatment should correct the peeling problem.

Paint flaking is caused by moisture that collects behind the painted surface (Fig. 2). Moisture enters the wood siding from the unpainted side. The absorbing and drying of the moisture causes repeated swelling and shrinking, thus breaking the paint film and causing it to pull away from the wood surface.

The first step is locating the source of the moisture. Check the area for leakage from the gutters or eaves of the house. If the flaking paint is near a bathroom or kitchen, the pipes may be sweating or leaking, or excess heat may be causing condensation.

You may need to install attic louvers, moisture vents or exhaust fans to correct the build-up of moisture.

Scrape and sand away all flaking paint. Remove the paint as far as 12" in all directions beyond the flaking area.

Sand the surface down to the unpainted wood, and spot prime the area with a good grade of undercoat.

Protect the area against moisture by caulking all seams, holes and cracks that appear in the freshly sanded area.

After the caulking compound has thoroughly dried, apply at least one coat of a top-quality house paint according to the manufacturer's directions. You may need to apply two coats. These steps should completely resolve the problem.

Spot peeling sometimes occurs on the siding of a house in areas exposed to the sun's heat (Fig. 3). Peeling is usually caused by moisture trapped in the siding that is drawn to the surface by the sun's rays. The moisture lifts the paint away from the surface.

The first step is locating the source of the trapped moisture. Check carefully for leaks in the gutters or eaves of the house. If the peeling area is near a kitchen or bathroom, you may need to install an exhaust fan to remove the moisture and sweat buildup.

Louvers placed in the overhang of the root–or wedges and vents placed in the siding–sometimes allow the trapped moisture to escape.

Remove all the old paint in the peeling area. Scrape off the paint approximately 12" beyond the peeling area.

Sand the surface down to the original wood and prime it with a good grade of wood undercoat.

Caulk all holes, cracks and seams with a good grade of caulking compound to avoid a repeat of the problem.

After the caulking compound has had time to dry thoroughly, apply at least one coat of a good grade of house paint. This should completely correct the problem.

Step 5: PEELING DOWNSPOUTS AND GUTTERS

Gutters and downspouts normally peel because they were not properly treated and primed when originally painted. Galvanized metal usually has a thin, invisible film that causes many paint problems.

Remove the loose paint from the downspouts and gutters with a wire brush, scraper or some other stiff tool. Use a power brush or power sander for big projects.

Be sure that all loose paint is removed. Otherwise, the problem will occur again after another painting. Don't take shortcuts–correct the problem now by doing the job right.

If you are using latex-based paint, clean the sanded area with a good grade of solvent. Apply a heavy coat of the solvent and allow it to evaporate. Special solvents are available for treating galvanized metal.

After the solvent has evaporated, apply the latex paint directly to the bare galvanized area. For large areas, finish the job with two top coats.

If you are using an oil-based paint, prime the sanded areas with a good grade of metal primer. After the primer has dried, apply one coat of a good grade of metal paint.

Finish the job with at least one coat of a good-quality house paint. Use two coats in extreme cases.

Extreme cracking, sometimes known as alligatoring, is caused when a second or third coat of paint is applied before the previous coat dries completely (Fig. 4).

In some cases, cracking or alligatoring is caused when the undercoat is incompatible with the type of finish coat applied to the surface.

The only solution is to completely sand away the cracked or alligatored surface. Use power sanding or brushing equipment for large areas.

After the cracked or alligatored paint is completely removed from the surface, brush the area thoroughly to remove dust and loose paint particles. Apply one coat of a good quality undercoat paint.

Allow the undercoat paint to dry thoroughly, then apply a second coat of a top-quality house paint of the desired color. This completely corrects the problem.

Step 7:  CHECKING OF A PAINTED SURFACE

Checking usually occurs on a painted plywood surface. As the plywood veneer ages, it cracks from repeated expansion and contraction. This weathering and aging causes the painted surface to check.

When checking occurs, the entire checked area must be sanded smooth. The job will be easier with a power sander.

After the sanding is complete, prime the bare wood with one coat of good grade undercoat.

Fill all holes, cracks and seams with a good grade of caulking compound.

After the caulking compound and undercoat paint have dried thoroughly, apply one layer of a good grade of outside house paint.

In cases where the plywood is extremely aged, you may need to replace the wood completely.

If new plywood is mounted, you can prevent it from checking by sanding the surface of the new plywood smooth.

After sanding, apply one coat of a good grade of latex wood primer.

After the primer has thoroughly dried, apply one or two coats of a top-quality outside house paint.

Mildew is caused by a combination of high humidity and high temperature that creates a growth of fungus on the paint film (Fig. 5).

Completely remove mildew from the surface. If you simply paint over it, the mildew will grow right through the new coat of paint.

Make a solution of 1/3 cup of powdered detergent and 1/2 cup of household bleach mixed in one gallon of warm water.

Scrub the entire mildewed surface thoroughly using this solution. Scrub the area vigorously, then rinse lightly with clean water.

Apply one coat of a good grade of undercoat paint, and allow it to dry.

After the undercoat layer has thoroughly dried, apply a finish coat of mildew-resistant outside paint or a top-grade of latex outside house paint. This procedure will remove the mildew problem.

Blistering is caused by moisture trapped in the wood that is drawn to the surface by the sun's rays. As the moisture rises, it pulls the paint away from the surface and causes blistering (Fig. 6).

Locate the source of the excess moisture and eliminate it. Check first for leakage from the gutters or eaves of the house.

If the area is near a bathroom or kitchen, you may need to install an exhaust fan to remove the excess heat, steam and moisture.

You can also install moisture vents or wedges in the siding to permit the moisture to escape.

Scrape or sand away all the old paint in the blistered area down to the wood. Scrape the unblistered paint out about 12" beyond the blistered area.

Next, sand this area thoroughly, right down to the fresh wood. Then prime it with a good grade of undercoat paint.

Block future moisture problems by sealing all cracks, holes and seams with a good grade of caulking compound.

After the caulking compound and undercoat have dried thoroughly, apply a second coat of a good grade of outside house paint. This eliminates the problem.

Chalking and flaking on masonry surfaces are usually caused by inadequate preparation of the surface prior to painting. This causes the paint to flake off or powder (Fig. 7).

First, remove the chalking or flaking with a wire brush or by sandblasting. If the job is big, use power sanders or wire brushes.

Next, seal all cracks with a good grade of concrete patch or caulk. After sealing the cracks, apply masonry conditioner following the manufacturer's instructions.

After the masonry conditioner has thoroughly dried, apply one or two coats of a good grade of latex house paint or an exterior masonry paint. Your flaking problem is corrected!

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

Many home repair jobs require you to remove a coat of old paint or varnish before applying new finish.

You can remove old paint or varnish using one of three different methods. The first involves using a chemical paint or varnish remover to soften the painted surface. Then, the old paint can be scraped off or washed away with water.

Paint can also be sanded away or removed with heat. In most cases, chemical paint removers are the easiest and fastest means for removing old paint or varnish.

Chemical paint and varnish removers are available in a variety of semi-paste and liquid forms. Almost all chemical removers are referred to as "paint removers" or "paint strippers." There are several basic types of paint removers:

Liquids are primarily for clean coatings and removing one or two layers of paint. This formula dries too quickly to remove multiple layers of paint. Good for detail areas or irregular surfaces. Also good for the stubborn spots after a washable has been used.

Brushables are a thick, paste-like formula that allows the paint remover to be applied in heavy layers so that it stays wet in order to strip multiple layers (up to 10 or more) in one application. Allows remover to cling to vertical or even overhead surfaces. Some paint removers are the "wash away" or "water wash" types. These terms simply indicate that the paint remover formula includes an emulsifier that permits the chemicals to mix with water and be rinsed away with a hose.

Use care when using this type of remover on fine furniture. Too much water can cause damage to the grain in the wood.

Read the labels on all paint remover cans and follow manufacturers' instructions carefully.

When removing paint, pour part of the paint remover into a small, wide mouth metal can (Fig. 1). A can with a plastic resealable lid works especially well.

Using a good quality brush, spread the remover thickly and evenly over the surface. Brush in one direction (Fig. 2) Try not to brush over areas that are already covered with paint remover.

Sprayables are for easy application. Some removers come with a spray bottle or sprayer. These removers are thin enough to spray yet thick enough to cling. Most of these removers are "water washable."

Aerosols are the most convenient and fastest way to apply paint remover. These removers are sprayed on and create a foamy, clinging layer thick enough to remove several layers of paint. If needed, reapplication is much easier, too! These removers are perfect for smaller jobs and detail work where brush application is difficult. Aerosol paint removers are available almost everywhere conventional removers are sold.

Some newer removers contain chemicals that are more "environmentally friendly." These removers generally work slower than more conventional types, but some allow use indoors with good ventilation. These are more expensive, but for people who are sensitive toward harsh chemicals, may offer an excellent choice.

In addition, several types of specialty removers are sold to remove certain coatings or using on a specific surface. These include stain removers for surfaces such as fiberglass.

After scraping, use a suitable solvent such as ethanol or mineral spirits (or water if a "water washable" paint remover was used.)

For difficult to remove coatings, removal can be speeded up by scratching the coating with coarse sandpaper, but be careful not to deeply scratch the underlying surface. Then apply the remover and cover with plastic film to keep the remover wet.

Check the label of the paint remover to see how long you should leave the remover on the surface, usually about 20 to 30 minutes. Test the condition of the surface by rubbing the blade of a chemical-resistant scraper in a circular motion to see if the paint has been loosened (Fig. 3).

If the scraper cuts through to the surface of the wood, the paint remover has done its job. Always wear chemical-resistant gloves and work in a well-ventilated area.

Apply paint remover to a manageable area. Only cover an area that allows you to scrape or wash away the paint remover before it dries.

Lay the paint remover on thick, and do not stir it after applying it to the surface. Give the chemicals time to act.

To help keep the area clean and make clean-up easier, use a cardboard box with a heavy layer of newspaper to catch the paint and remover.

When the paint remover has done its job and the surface is softened (Fig. 3), you are ready to remove the loose paint. It is usually best to remove as much remover and paint as possible the first time. A scraper works well for this (Fig. 4).

Follow this with a medium grade of steel wool, old rags or an abrasive scouring pad (Fig. 5).

For hard-to-remove spots, you may need to apply a second coat of paint remover. Wetting the steel wool with paint remover will also work in some cases.

With a better grade of paint remover, you can wash away the old paint with a garden hose. Remember, on fine furniture don't use too much water. After removing the paint, rinse the surface clean with water. Treat any rough spots with steel wool or a scouring pad (Fig. 6).

After cleaning and allowing to dry, most surfaces will need to be lightly sanded to prepare the surface. With a better grade of remover, no sanding or swabbing is necessary. Some types of paint can be especially hard to remove. This usually requires a second coat of paint remover after you have removed the first coat of enamel (Fig. 7). If the surface has several layers of paint, it may be necessary to apply paint remover a third time.

Paint or varnish can be sanded away with any type of power or hand sander (Fig. 8). For bigger sanding jobs, you'll want to use a power sander. Belt, disk or drum sanders can be used.

Although sanding removes a painted surface quickly and easily, it has one basic disadvantage–it also removes some of the wood surface underneath the paint. If you are working on a fine piece of furniture, sanding is not recommended.

When sanding old paint or varnish from the surface, use open coat, coarse sandpaper. Fine sandpaper clogs up quickly, making it ineffective as a paint remover.

As a rule, sanding is recommended only on extremely rough jobs. Chemical paint removers are much more effective and easier to use.

Step 3: REMOVING PAINT FROM IRREGULAR SURFACES

Unfortunately, all painted surfaces are not smooth and even. For curved surfaces, cut-out areas and other hard-to-reach places, use chemical paint removers.

Paint around the spindles of a chair is especially hard to remove. Run a heavy layer of paint remover into the crack around the spindles (Fig. 9). Let it set for about 20 minutes, then scrape away the old paint and apply more remover as needed.

Apply paint remover to the legs of chairs, tables and other such round surfaces with a regular paint brush (Fig. 10). Set the legs of the chair in a small metal can or container to catch the surplus paint remover as it runs down the leg of the chair. Brush upward on the legs to reuse the surplus remover.

Use plenty of paint remover on rounded surfaces. Apply a heavy layer, let it set and remove and reapply as necessary until all the old paint or varnish is removed.

A scouring pad is excellent for removing paint or varnish from carved areas on furniture (Fig. 11). Copper scouring pads or plastic cleaning pads can be forced into the carved areas to remove the old paint or varnish after it has been softened by paint remover. You can also use steel wool to remove old paint from such areas.

Always rinse the surface of carved areas after the old paint or varnish has been removed with a scouring pad.

When a scouring pad or steel wool cannot be forced into narrow slits or grooves, try using a brass wire brush (Fig, 12). Be careful not to press too hard when using the brush. Wood softened by paint remover can be marred if you apply too much pressure.

If a wire brush cannot reach into extremely small grooves, try scraping the paint out of the grooves with a small stick of wood (Fig. 13). A splintered piece of wood from a small board can often be used as a handy tool for removing old paint from grooves.

Removing paint from turned legs on tables can be difficult (Fig. 14). Rub a twisted piece of burlap like a shoeshine cloth over the paint remover after it has set for about 20 minutes. This will usually remove the old paint quickly and easily.

Some surfaces cannot tolerate paint remover. For example, key holes or holes where cabinet hardware has been removed should be plugged with paper before you apply the paint remover (Fig. 15).

You will probably replace your cabinet hardware with new hardware after the surface is repainted. However, if you want to reuse the old hardware, dip it into paint remover for complete cleaning (Fig. 16).

Wash the hardware thoroughly after it is dipped into the remover, then spray each piece with a clear lacquer to rebrighten the surface.

You can also remove paint with heat, which destroys the film in the old paint. This makes it easy to scrape the old paint away (Fig. 17). Special electric paint removers or heat guns use heat for paint or varnish removal.

Scrape away the paint immediately after it is heated. Use a broad paint scraper for removing the heated paint right behind the electric softener.

Remember that you should never allow the heat gun to stay in one spot long enough to burn the wood. Keep moving often to avoid browned or darkened spots on the surface from excessive heat.

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

There are two important steps you should take before you begin to hang wallpaper. The first step is to read the manufacturer's instructions on the products that you will be using. The second is to properly prepare the walls to be papered. The more time you spend on preparing the walls, the more satisfactory the results will be.

Always turn off the electricity and remove any wall plates, wall fixtures, outlet plates, etc., before you begin to hang the paper (Fig. 1).

The walls must be in good condition. Any holes or cracks must be repaired.

Any mildew should be removed with a mixture of two cups of household bleach per gallon of water. After the wall is dry, it should be primed with a good quality stain killer/primer.

There are two quick tests you can perform to check the condition of painted walls. First, hold a damp sponge against the wall for about 15 seconds. Then wipe the area with a cloth vigorously. If very little paint comes off, the paint is okay. If a lot of paint comes off, the walls should be washed thoroughly with soap and water or a solution of six parts water to one part ammonia or sanded and washed to remove the paint.

The second test involves cutting three small Xs into the wall surface. Place a piece of scotch tape over the Xs. Then yank the piece of tape off the wall. Again if very little paint comes off, the paint is okay. If a lot of paint comes off, you need to sand the walls.

Scape or sand any peeling paint to provide a smooth finish. Walls painted with gloss or semi-gloss paints should be sanded to dull the surface. All sanded surfaces should be primed before hanging wallpaper.

Any stains like grease, crayons, ink, lipstick, etc., should be cleaned and primed with a stain killer/primer.

For new drywall, be sure the areas along the joints and over nail heads are thoroughly cured and sanded smooth. New drywall should be primed with an opaque or a white primer.

If you are hanging paper on a wall where old wallpaper has been removed, clean off any remaining wallpaper adhesive. The adhesive can be removed by sanding or by using an adhesive remover. Wash the wall and let it dry thoroughly. Prime the wall before hanging the wallpaper.

If the wallpaper has not been removed and is in good condition you can hang the new paper over the old. Be sure the walls are clean and dry. The most important consideration here is the type of primer to use.

With the development of wall liners, wallpaper can be placed over rough surfaces like paneling and masonry block. Use a primer that will provide good adhesion between the surface and the wallpaper. Wallpaper can be applied directly over paneling, but the grooves will need to be filled in and primed first.

To determine the amount of paper you'll need, first measure the height of the wall from the top of the baseboard to the ceiling or moulding. Next measure the length of each wall. Add the lengths of the walls together. Find the total number of square feet by multiplying the wall height by the total number of square feet to be covered by wallpaper.

American manufactured single rolls of wallpaper usually have about 36 square feet. Double rolls have about 72 sq. ft. Triple rolls have about 108 sq. ft. However, American rolls are being phased out and may be hard to find. Metric or Euro rolls have about 29 sq. ft. per roll. Double rolls have about 58 sq. ft. 

Use the metric single roll chart (Fig. 2). If your pattern does not repeat or if it repeats every 0" to 6", each roll yields approximately 25 sq. ft. If your pattern repeats every 7" to 12", each roll yields approximately 22 sq. ft. and so on. Divide the total number of square feet to be covered by the number that is appropriate for your pattern. This is the total number of single rolls of paper you will need for your wallpaper job.

Wallpaper is usually packaged in single or double rolls. To find the number of double rolls you need, divide the number of single rolls by two. To find the number of triple rolls you need, divide by three.

For example, suppose the ceiling is 8' high and the room is 10'x12' with two 3'x7' doors and two 3'x4' windows. This means the total wall length is 10' + 10'+ 12' + 12' or 44'. Find the total number of square feet, 44'x8' or 352 sq. ft. Find the number of sq. ft. per door, 3'x7' or 21 sq. ft. Remember there are two doors and two windows. Find the total number of sq. ft. not to be covered, 12' + 12' + 21' + 21' or 66 sq. ft. Then find the total number of sq. ft. to be covered, 352 - 66 or 286 sq. ft. 

If the pattern repeats every 8", we get 22 sq. ft. per roll. Find the number of single rolls, 286 divided by 22 or 13 single rolls. For double rolls, 13 divided by two or 6-1/2 means you should buy seven double rolls. For triple rolls, 13 divided by three or 4-1/3 means you should buy five triple rolls.

It is usually best to start hanging the first strip of wallpaper to the right of a door or window. This makes any break in the pattern of the paper less conspicuous.

Measure the width of the wallpaper and subtract 1/2". This 1/2" reduction allows for the paper to overlap the adjoining wall.

Mark the width of the wallpaper less 1/2" on the wall to the right of the door or window where you will begin (Fig. 3).

Line up a level on this mark and draw a pencil line lightly from the ceiling to the floor. You may need to reposition your level several times. Be sure to line it up carefully each time (Fig. 4)

You are now ready to mix the wallpaper paste. If you are using premixed paste or prepasted paper, this step is not necessary.

If you are using paste, read the manufacturer's instructions carefully and follow them exactly.

Always use cold water to mix paste. Mix it thoroughly to be sure it is free of lumps.

Now tie a string across the top of your paste bucket (Fig. 5). This will keep the brush clean and enable you to brush excess paste out of the brush.

Cut the first strip of paper 4" longer than the wall height. Be sure and allow for matching the pattern on the wallpaper.

Unroll the next strip and match the pattern before cutting the second strip. Study the pattern carefully and match it before cutting.

It is usually wise to cut no more than two or three strips of paper before applying them.

Unroll the strip of wallpaper on the work surface with the pattern side down. Brush the paste on the covering about 2/3 the length of the strip (Fig. 6). Brush the paste out evenly and not too thick.

You may want to add a few drops of food coloring to the paste to tint it slightly. This makes it easy to judge the thickness of the paste and detect any missed spots.

Fold the pasted end of the paper back about 2/3 of the length of the piece.

Put the pasted side to the pasted side, avoiding any creases.

Slide the paper forward on the work surface and apply paste to the remaining 1/3 of the piece. Fold it back over in the same manner. Allow about five minutes before using the piece. If you have to stop or will not be using the strip right away, place it in a plastic bag to keep it moist.

You can run prepasted paper through clear water (Fig. 7). Plastic and metal dip troughs for prepasted paper are available. Cut a piece of pipe or dowel rod one inch shorter than the trough. Lay it in the bottom of the trough over the paper. It will hold the paper under water as you pull it out.

Most manufacturers recommend the butt joint (Fig 8). It leaves no ridges at all, but requires a little extra care to make. The edge of one strip is butted up against the edge of an adjoining strip. If you force the two edges together too tightly, it will form a ridge. If they are not placed together tightly enough, you will leave a gap between the two edges. Use the palms of your hands when positioning the paper. Try not to pull on the edges.

Use extreme care when placing the first strip of paper on the wall, since all other strips of paper will be aligned to this first one.

It may be necessary to trim the edge of the paper to ensure a proper fit. You can trim the paper with a razor knife and a straightedge (Fig. 9).

Use extreme care when carrying long strips of pasted wallpaper. Drape the folded paper over your arm like a coat (Fig. 10). Never open the paper until it is in position to hang.

When the paper is in position for hanging, unfold the top half of the pasted sheet. Overlap the top edge of the pasted paper (Fig. 11) at the top by about 2". You'll cut away this overlap in the trimming process.

Hold the edge of the paper with one hand and pull the pasted fold apart. The pasted side of the paper should be held firmly against the wall.

Line up the right edge of the paper with the pencil line you made previously (Fig. 4). Use a smoothing brush to smooth out the top and bottom. Allow the bottom of the paper to fall of its own weight (Fig. 12). Brush it out evenly. If you trap some air behind the paper, smooth it out with the brush. If this does not work, pull the paper away from the wall.

Continue to apply each sheet of paper in this same manner. Use care to align the design in each succeeding sheet.

Trim off the surplus paper at the bottom and top of each strip. Use a metal paint edger or broad knife and a razor knife to get a clean edge (Fig. 13). Change the blade on your knife every strip for better results.

Use clean water to rinse all baseboards, casings, etc., with a damp sponge before the paste dries.

Let the paper dry about 15 to 20 minutes, then roll all seams (Fig. 14). Use a regular wallpaper roller and roll thoroughly for a neat job. Do not apply too much pressure; you may form paste ridges under the paper or force the paste out through the seam.

At the corners, measure from the last full strip of wallpaper to the corner and add 1/2". This 1/2" will allow the strip to go into the corner and onto the adjoining wall by 1/2" (Fig 16). If your walls are not running straight up and down, you may want to use 1" instead of 1/2". A small slit at the top and bottom of the piece in the corner will make it easier to go around the corner.

For the next piece, measure out the width of the wallpaper from the corner and make a pencil mark. Use your level and make another perfectly straight line from the floor to ceiling as before in Fig. 4. This piece will overlap the 1/2" strip on the wall from the previous piece installed. For vinyl wallpaper, use a vinyl-to-vinyl adhesive on these corner seams.

Be especially careful when trimming paper along the edges around fireplaces, windows, mantelpieces, etc. Sometimes the weight of the paper causes it to tear at its narrowest point.

For outside corners, measure the distance from the last full strip to the corner. Add 1" to this measurement. Measure the width of the paper and add 1/2". Measure out from the corner the width of the paper and add 1/2". Make a pencil mark on the wall. Using your level, again draw a light pencil line from the floor to the ceiling. Align your wallpaper with this line and match the pattern as closely as possible. This piece will overlap the last piece by 1/2".

For doors and windows, hang the paper over the edge. Using your razor knife cut away the excess wallpaper. Making small cuts from the corners of the doors and windows toward the center will help you position the wallpaper around these obstacles. After the paper is smoothed, use your edger and razor knife to trim around the doors and windows.

Since all the switchplates, outlet plates, etc. were removed before papering, you can apply the wallpaper right over these openings. The wallpaper can then be cut with the razor knife and straightedge (Fig. 17). Replace the fixture plates for a finished job.

Step 1:  HOW INSULATING YOUR HOME SAVES MONEY

Heating and cooling your home accounts for about 50 percent to 70 percent of the energy used in your home. Unless your home was built as an energy-efficient home, adding insulation will probably reduce your utility bills. Even a small amount of insulation–if properly installed–can reduce energy costs dramatically. 

You should insulate all areas of your home. Insulation priorities include your attic, including the attic access door, under floors above unheated basements or crawl spaces, and on the edges of concrete slabs. Your options for insulating existing walls are somewhat limited. However, if you are remodeling or residing your home, use the amounts of insulation recommended for new construction. Figure 1 shows you where to insulate and also contains the range of recommended R-values for each of those areas in your house. The R-value changes because of the type of heat you use and where you live. It also changes between new and existing homes. To find the recommended R-value for the area of the country you live in, contact your local electric company or gas company. You can also find the recommended R-value by zip code and heat source at the Department of Energy Web site, www.eren.doe.gov. 

Most insulating materials are available in several common forms–loose-fill or spray-applied materials, blanket rolls, batts, boards and foil-faced paper, foam, film and cardboard. Each form is ideal for specific insulating jobs.

The type of insulation material you select for any job depends on how you intend to use it, how much you want to spend, and how easy it is to install.

Figure 2 provides a summary of the qualities and suggested uses for the basic types of insulation.

Study Figure 2 carefully. Consider the advantages, disadvantages and instructions for using each type of material as outlined in the chart. This table should help you select the correct material for any insulation job.

Blanket and batt insulation is usually made from fiber glass or rock wool. It is sized to fit between studs, floor joists and ceiling joists. It comes both faced and unfaced. Faced means the batt or blanket has a cover such as paper or foil on one side. Unfaced means there is no cover. Some batts and blankets now come with a protective covering that reduces the "itchy feeling" you get when you work with insulation. 

Rigid foam insulation is widely used on basement walls and on exterior walls. If rigid foam is used inside, it must be covered with gypsum board or other building code-approved material for fire safety reasons. When it is applied on the outside, it must be covered with a weatherproof facing. When using a foil-covered rigid foam, the foil must be away from the heated side of the wall to avoid a condensation problem.

On a new home, find out what the recommended R-value is for the type of heat you are planning to use for the location of your new home. Again, local electric and gas companies can provide this information to you or you can contact the Department of Energy.

On an existing home it is a little more complicated, but not hard. First, you need to identify what type of insulation is currently in your home. It may differ by the various locations in your home. In your attic for example, you may find batt or blanket fiber glass over the top of loose-fill cellulose. You may also find multiple layers of batt or blanket insulation. Next, you need to measure the thickness of each of these different types of insulation at the different locations. To help you with this process, take a regular sheet of notebook paper and make four columns. Label the first column "Location," the second column "Type Of Insulation," the third column "Inches Thick" and the fourth column "R-value per Inch." 

Figure 3 shows you the approximate R-value each inch of the various types of insulating materials provides. Use this chart to fill in the last column of your worksheet. One inch of fiber glass batts or blankets, for example, provides an approximate R-value of 3.2. To find the R-value of 4" of fiberglass, multiply 4 x 3.2 to get an R-value of 12.8. Repeat this process of multiplying the number of inches thick and the R-value per inch of insulation for each area in your home. If you have two different types of insulation together, like our earlier example, find the R-value for each and then add them together.

Let's use an example where we have 6" of cellulose covered by 6" of fiber glass batts in the attic. We take the R-value of cellulose, which is 3.5 and multiply it by 6 to get 21.0. We then take the R-value of fiberglass batts, which is 3.2 and multiply that by 6 to get 19.2. Since the insulation is layered one on top of the other, we add them together 21.0 + 19.2 to get 40.2.

If we live in a region where the recommended R-value is 38, we already have 40.2, so we do not need to add insulation. What happens though, if we live in a region that recommends 49–we need to add some insulation, but how much? That's easy too! Take the recommended R-value, which is 49, and subtract what we have already, which is 40.2 (49 - 40.2 to get 8.8). We need to add an R-value of 8.8. The R-value of an inch of fiber glass batts is 3.2. Divide the amount we need to add, 8.8, by the R-value per inch, 3.2, to get 2.75. Batt and blanket insulation comes in several thicknesses. One of these is 3-1/2". So one layer of 3-1/2" fiber glass batt insulation added to what we have will give us a little more than what we need. It is always ok to add more insulation than is recommended. Just remember not to pack it too tightly because packing it can reduce its effectiveness.

Loose-fill insulating materials of rock wool, fiber glass or cellulose are commonly used for insulating attics. Vermiculite is not currently used for homes, but it may be found in older homes. It is best to install these materials with a plywood rake attached to a rake handle, making spreading much easier.

To make this type of rake, cut a scrap piece of plywood to the length of the space between the joists plus 4" (Fig. 5). The extra 4" allows for an overhang on the joists.

Next decide how deep you plan to install the loose-fill material. For example, suppose you are planning to lay the loose-fill material to a depth of 3" between the attic joists (Fig. 4). Measure the depth in the space you plan to fill then saw the plywood rake as illustrated in Fig. 5. The rake should ride on the joist on either side and level the material off evenly to a depth of 3". Attach a handle, making a handy tool that will save you hours of backbreaking labor and enable you to rake the material easily and evenly into otherwise unreachable corners (Fig. 5).

Always apply blanket-type insulation with the vapor barrier facing the interior of your home. The vapor barrier should always be toward the source of heat in the winter (Fig. 6). Never place a vapor barrier between two layers of insulation. This can lead to a condensation problem and reduce the effectiveness of the insulation. Lay the blanket as close to the joists and floor as possible. Fill any gaps with loose-fill insulation or place another layer of blanket insulation across the previous layer. 

Always place insulation on the outside of pipes or ducts (Fig. 6). This means the insulation should be between the outside wall and the pipes.

When using blanket insulation, always place the vapor barrier toward the heat source and insulation outside of any pipes.

Staple blanket insulation when laid between joists in the attic (Fig. 7). Most rolls of blanket insulation materials have flanges that can be stapled or tacked to the ceiling joists, as illustrated. Always keep the blanket as close to the joists and floor area as possible–fill any gaps with strips of insulation or loose-fill insulation.

Never allow blanket-type insulation to cut off the flow of air and stop proper ventilation in an attic (Fig. 8). Blanket insulation should never block the air movement from the eave vents into the attic.

Proper ventilation in the attic is very important in any insulation job. Make provision for air to flow in and around the eave vents and to flow out through a ridge vent roof ventilator or through a ventilator on the end of the house (Fig 9).

Blanket insulation without a vapor barrier can be wedged between existing ceiling joists (Fig. 10). Make sure the insulation comes to the top of the plate to avoid heat loss from the penetration of wind under the insulation. Failure to pay close attention to this detail can lead to a frost line forming on cold, windy days. It will form on the inside wall where the ceiling and walls come together.

There are special formed inserts made of foam or plastic designed to go up next to the roof between the rafters. They help with both the airflow and the frost line. Many of them are designed to be installed during new construction. But they can be installed in an existing roof with very little extra effort.

In some cases, it may be easier to apply the blanket between the rafters on the roof (Fig. 11). In this case, staple the blanket insulation directly to the rafters.

Repair any major tears or rips in the vapor barrier and insulation by adding additional vapor barrier and insulation to build up to the level on the normal insulation run.

Whether you apply the insulation to the attic roof or the floor, always double it back at the end for maximum efficiency (Fig. 12). Illustration A shows how the blanket of insulation material can be rolled at the end between the attic joists. Illustration B shows how the same material can be doubled back between the rafters of the roof.

If possible, lay blanket-type insulating material between the studs in the wall. If you're using insulation blankets without a vapor barrier, they should be forced into the area between the studs. Then, place a polyethylene vapor barrier on the inside face of the wall. Staple the vapor barrier into place.

When building a new structure, insulate the full wall, including around the openings for doors and windows.

Use drywall with a foil back as a vapor barrier instead of polyethylene if it is more practical.

Blanket insulation material with a vapor barrier attached can be stapled into position.

When the blanket has a vapor barrier, take the time to staple or tack all sides, bottoms and tops. This increases the efficiency of the insulation.

Use scraps of insulation material to insulate all the cracks and crevices around doors and windows (Fig. 13). Then use scraps of vapor barrier to seal these areas. Staple the barrier in place.

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

Working on any roof can be dangerous. You should take every safety precaution possible and always use extreme care while working on the roof.

Use common sense while working on the roof. Let someone know you are up there – or better yet, work with a helper. 

Use a ladder that is high enough and strong enough for the job you are doing. Secure the ladder at the top and bottom before climbing it. 

Use extreme caution when working near power lines, conduits or TV antennas. Never touch them or allow a metal ladder to come in contact with them. 

Never start a roofing job in cold or wet weather. Also, allow early morning dew to disappear before beginning your work. 

Wear heavy, rubber-soled shoes with a non-skid tread to prevent slips and avoid wearing loose clothing.

If the roof slopes more than a 6" rise for every 12" horizontally, use roof brackets and boards to provide extra footing support. Place all tools and shingles within easy reach and where they will not slide off the roof. 

Keep the roof surface clean and free from loose nails and shingles. These can cause you to slip and fall.

Keep people away from below the area where you will be working.

Roofing shingles are sold in "squares." Most asphalt shingles are baled together with three or four bundles per square. 

First, measure the length and width of each area of the roof. For each area of the roof, multiply the length times the width. Then add the results for the total square feet of shingles needed. Measure all dormers and extensions. 

Divide the total square footage by 100 and purchase that many squares of shingles. 

Purchase an additional 10 percent of the number of shingles for cutting, waste and starter courses and to save one bundle for future repairs. 

You'll also need about 2-1/2 lbs. of roofing nails for each square of shingles. Use hot-dipped galvanized roofing nails, either 11- or 12-gauge with a 3/8" diameter head, or follow the shingle manufacturer's recommendation for the type of nails to be used. 

Use 1-1/4" or 1-1/2" nails for new roofs, or 1-3/4" nails for reroofing or repairs. 

If you are starting a new roofing job, or a complete reroofing project, you'll also need enough 15-lb. roofing felt to cover the entire roof area underneath the shingles. 

You'll need roofing cement for edges, flashings and ridges.

There are many types, styles and sizes of asphalt shingles. 

Your selection process should begin with the type and grade of asphalt shingle needed for the type of building. Some factors to consider are the purpose of the building, the slope of the roof, local weather conditions and the design, style and size of the structure. 

The exposure for each type of shingle is usually specified by the manufacturer. However, for most common shingles, a 5" exposure is standard

You can successfully lay asphalt shingles over any existing roof. However, if there are more than three layers of old roofing on the structure, they must be removed completely before applying new shingles. 

Make any necessary repairs to the roof structure before beginning the reroofing project.

Drive down or remove any loose or protruding nails. 

For reroofing jobs, renail any loose shingles and replace any missing shingles with new ones. (See the upcoming repair section). 

If you're applying new shingles over old wooden shingles, nail them securely and use feathering strips for a smooth appearance.

Making repairs to an existing asphalt shingle roof is easy when you follow these step-by-step instructions. 

Use a small pry bar to pull out the nails holding the damaged shingle. Remove both the nails and the shingle.

If you cannot reach the nails, use a sharp linoleum knife to cut away the damaged shingle. 

Always try to replace the damaged shingle with one similar in weight, size and color. 

Apply asphalt roofing cement to the back of the replacement shingle before putting it into place. 

After positioning the new shingle, nail it down with 1-3/4" roofing nails. 

Position the roofing nails so they are covered by the shingle above. For extra protection against leaks, apply a small amount of roofing cement to the nail heads.

A roof valley is formed where two roofs join at an angle. You must be careful when shingling in this area – an improperly laid roof valley can easily develop leaks. 

Valleys should be covered with a mineral-surfaced, roll roofing material (Fig. 1). 

First, place an 18"-wide strip or metal flashing down the center of the valley, from the eaves to the top of the ridge. 

Nail this material down on the outer edges only, making sure that it stays flat in the valley.

Place roofing cement along each edge. 

Next, lay a 36"-wide strip of the roofing material down on top of the previous strip, and nail its outer edges. 

Snap two chalk lines down the edge of the valley. Start at the ridge, with the lines centered in the valley and 6" apart. As you move down the roof, spread the lines apart, about 1/8" per foot, down to the eaves.

Now you're ready to apply shingles. Lay them down to the edge of the chalk lines, and cut them to fit (Fig. 2).

Place the end of each shingle in roofing cement to seal it before nailing it into position. 

Do not nail shingles closer than 6" to the chalk lines.

 Applying new asphalt shingles on a complete roofing job or on new construction requires a layer of 15-lb. roofing felt over 5/8" plywood sheathing.

Each course of the roofing felt should overlap the preceding course by at least 2" to provide adequate weatherproofing protection. 

Staple the felt underlayment into position, starting at the edge of the eaves and extending up to the roof ridge.

First, locate the exact center of the roof and mark it with a chalk line. 

Next, install a starter strip along the bottom edge of the roof. Many manufacturers offer a special starter strip; however, if you don't have this strip, you can cut the tabs off the shingles and use the shingles to form a starter strip. (Fig. 3). 

The starter strip should project out over the eaves and the gable end by about 5/8". 

After the starter strip is in place, again locate the exact center of the roof and mark it with a chalk line. 

Center your first shingle on the chalk line–directly on top of the starter strip–and nail it into position (Fig. 4). 

Use four nails in each shingle, located in the position shown in Fig. 5. Always drive the nails straight in and never at an angle, as they could cut the shingle and cause leaks. 

Place the nails about 5-5/8" up from the bottom of the shingle. 

Each succeeding shingle should bump up against the center shingle. Continue applying the shingles to the end of the roof in each direction (Fig. 6).

After the first course of shingles has been laid on top of the starter strip, snap down a chalk line at the manufacturer's specified exposure, usually 5", to aid in applying shingles. 

Continue snapping down chalk lines until you reach the ridge of the roof. This simplifies the job of laying each succeeding course of shingles in a straight line. 

Start the second course of shingles on top of the first course. Place the cut-out over the center of the middle tab on the center shingle. 

Remember, a shingle cut-out must never fall directly over another cut-out in the row immediately below it. 

Continue placing shingles in the second course to the end of the roof in each direction.

Start at the center of the roof for the third course of shingles. Again, place the cut-out over the center tab on the preceding row, and continue to the end of the roof. 

Follow this procedure until you reach the ridge of the roof. Then start on the other side of the roof in the same way you started the first side

The easiest way to finish around vent pipes is to purchase a vent pipe boot that slides down over the vent pipe. It consists of a rubber gasket and metal flashing. If you do not have a vent pipe boot, follow these directions. 

Place mineral-surfaced roofing material or metal flashing around the vent pipe before laying any shingles.
Cut a square of flashing material with at least 6" of edge around the vent pipe (Fig. 7). 

Cut a hole in the center of the flashing that's large enough to fit over the vent pipe. Coat the bottom side with roofing cement, slip it over the vent pipe and nail it into position. 

Lay shingles up to the vent pipe, completely covering the edge of the flashing material. Set the ends of the shingles in roofing cement. 

Cut a hole in the shingle that goes over the vent pipe, apply roofing cement to the bottom and nail it into position (Fig. 8). 

Repeat the procedure on the next course of shingles if they, too, overlap the vent pipe.

Place mineral-surfaced roofing material or aluminum flashing around the edge of a chimney before shingles are positioned. 

On older roofs, you can use the old flashings for a pattern. On new roofs, use Fig. 9 as a guide for cutting the flashing. 

Fit the new flashing around the base of the chimney, then cement and nail it into place. 

Cut flashing strips into pieces measuring 7" x 10", then bend them in half to 7" x 5". 

Place these flashing strips against the chimney, seal the edge with roofing cement and nail into place. 

Apply shingles up to the edge of the chimney, seal the edge with roofing cement and nail the shingles near the edge of the flashings (Fig. 10).

Each course of shingles applied to the hip roof should be continued around the roof (Fig. 11). 

Trim each shingle to the angle of the hip ridge. 

Use regular hip shingles or cut standard shingles (three-cut)to cover the hip ridge. 

Cover the hip ridge before the main roof ridge (Fig. 12). 

Start at the eave and apply hip shingles at the same exposure as the main roof. 

Use two shingles to start the run on the hip ridge (Fig. 13). 

Use four nails per shingle and leave no nails exposed. 

When placing the last hip shingle on the main ridge, seal it with roofing cement and nail it into position.

Taking the time to maintain and repair downspouts and gutters can double or even triple the life of your roof drainage system. This can save you a lot of money on repair costs.

Inspect your downspouts and gutters about twice a year. Carefully examine them in the spring just before the spring rains. Inspect them again in the fall when leaves, limbs and other debris might cause problems.

Improper drainage due to poor roof pitch is one of the biggest causes of roof drainage problems. Improper drainage causes water to accumulate in certain spots in the gutters, ultimately building up debris and accelerating rust.

Clogged gutters and downspouts can also be a big problem. Thoroughly clean all debris from the gutters and downspouts at least twice a year (Fig. 1). If there are a number of trees near your home, clean the gutters with a whisk broom even more often than twice a year.

Rust can be a big problem. Keep the gutters properly cleaned and the pitch set correctly to slow down the rusting process.

The gutters on your home should be installed so there is a drop of approximately 1/16" for each 1' of length of guttering.

You can use a chalk line and a level to take a reading and mark the slope of your gutters. Another way is to pour a bucket of water into the gutter and observe the flow. If it runs off without leaving pools of water in the gutter, the gutter is set properly. If there are low spots, the water will sit in the gutter and locate the trouble spots.

Ordinarily, the pitch of a gutter can be set in only one direction. However, gutter runs of more than 35' should slant in each direction from the center (Fig. 2). Again, the drop should be set at a rate of 1/16" of fall for each 1' of gutter.

High or low spots detected in the gutter run can often be corrected by bending the hanger than supports the gutter (Fig. 3). A slight bend up or down can often remove the low or high spot.

Some gutters are installed with spikes and sleeves, sometimes called spikes and ferrules (Fig. 4). You may need to add an additional spike or sleeve to raise or lower the fall of the gutter at any specific point.

When extra spikes or sleeves are added, use a power drill to make a hole through the gutter before inserting the spike and sleeve.

The bracket hanger is nailed or screwed to the fascia underneath the eave of the roof (Fig. 5). Either of these types of hangers can be added as needed to remove high and low spots in a run of gutter. Add braces that match those already in use.

Gutters are usually held in place with either spikes and sleeves or hangers.

There are two basic types of gutter hangers. One is the strap hanger (Fig. 5). This type of hanger supports the gutter with a wraparound strap underneath the gutter. A long strap is then affixed to the top and nailed to the sheathing under the edge of the roof. The roofing material covers the strap, making it totally inconspicuous.

Clogging usually occurs in a drainage system at the elbow where the downspout connects to the gutter (Fig. 6). Since this elbow is relatively easy to remove, it is a good idea to remove it and inspect for clogging.

If the clogging is not in the elbow, check farther down the downspout.

You can usually check the downspout from the bottom. However, if the downspout is inserted in an underground tiling system, you may need to use a plumber's or electrician's snake to clean the downspout (Fig. 7). This type of metal snake can be used to penetrate the downspout for a great distance, removing any obstacles causing clogging and backup problems.

If your roof drainage system is exposed to falling leaves and debris, you should install leaf strainers in all downspout outlets (Fig. 8). These strainers insert into the downspout outlet. They permit the free passage of water but stop any leaves or other objects that can cause problems in downspout drainage.

Leaf strainers are easy to install and are relatively inexpensive.

You can solve most drainage problems by installing leaf guards over your entire gutter system (Fig. 9). There are various types of leaf guards available.

Leaf guards of metal, plastic, etc., are usually mounted in the same way. Lift the lower run of shingles and insert the leaf guard underneath. Some leaf guards clamp over the edge of the gutter.

The leaf guards hold the leaves and other falling debris on top of the guard while allowing water to flow freely through the drainage system. The leaves then dry on top of the guard and are quickly blown away.

Any type of gutter will ultimately need some mending or repairing. However, aluminum and plastic gutters and downspouts last much longer than those made of galvanized steel.

When leaks occur, you may want to totally replace entire sections of the gutter rather than trying to mend them. However, small leaks and rust spots can easily be patched or mended.

The first step in repairing a rusted and leaky gutter is to scrape off all the rust (Fig. 10). Use a steel brush or a 1/4" drill and a power rotary brush.

Take time to remove as much of the rust as possible. Old rust left underneath the mending job simply starts to work again.

Next, cover the area to be repaired with either a rust treatment or rust-inhibiting paint. Allow it to dry thoroughly (Fig. 11).

For small holes, apply a 1/8" thick layer of plastic cement specially made for gutter repairs or use ordinary roof cement (Fig. 12).

For larger holes, follow this same procedure. While the cement is still wet, cover the area with strips of heavy aluminum foil or plastic (Fig. 13). Cut the patch material to fit exactly inside the repaired area.

Press the patch down tightly into the gutter with a dry cloth. Wear gloves during this part of the repair job.

When joining two pieces of patch material, overlap it in the direction of the water flow and cement the edges together securely. Be sure the overlap is in the direction of the water flow–otherwise, water may enter at the seam.

Even the best gutter system cannot function properly unless all downspouts are in working order. Take the time to examine your downspout system at the same time you are mending and repairing your gutters.

If the downspouts drain into an underground tile system, make a careful check at the point where the downspout enters the underground tiling (Fig. 14). Make sure it is cemented firmly into place and there is no backup or overflow.

You can use a plumber's or electrician's snake to clean any possible obstructions in the downspout system.

Most downspouts empty onto a splash block (Fig. 15). Be sure these splash blocks are large enough and high enough to carry the water away from the foundation of the house.

Check the splash blocks occasionally to make sure they are not broken or deteriorating. Downspouts that pour water around the foundation of the house can cause basement or crawl space water problems. Secure splash blocks remove much of this danger.

You may need to add extra downspouts to carry water completely away from the house (Fig. 16).

You can attach an extra length of downspout at the elbow to continue it as far away from the house as necessary.

Special roll-up downspout sheets are available that extend themselves when filled with water and roll up when the water is emptied. These perform the same function as an extended downspout, but they avoid the unsightliness of the downspout extended into the yard.

Add downspout simply by crimping the end of the material with a pair of pliers (Fig. 17). The new piece of downspout will slip easily into the original piece.

Fig. 1 shows a few of the many types of concrete blocks available for modern construction. Select the correct block for your job before starting the project. Your retailer will be glad to help you select the correct blocks if you need further direction.

All 8" blocks–the standard unit–are actually 7-5/8" in width. This allows for the thickness of the mortar on the finished job.

The standard unit is suitable for most projects. Half-blocks with square or rounded corners are often necessary at the end of a run.

Both single and double corner units provide a block that gives a smooth finish at the corner.

Jamb joist blocks are used around doorways.

Sash units provide an opening for casement windows, while header blocks are designed to provide a space for wooden supports or other structures at the top of a wall.

Other special blocks are available for almost any building requirement.

Every block wall–regardless of height or length–should be placed on a secure footing of poured concrete (Fig. 2). A block barbecue grill or outdoor fireplace requires a large concrete pad as a footing.

The footing should always be poured deep enough so that the base is below the frost line.

Always make the footing at least twice as deep as the thickness of the wall and twice as wide (Fig. 2). For example, if you are using 8" blocks, the footing should be at least 8" deep and about 16" wide. This footing will provide a 4" rim on each side of the block when laid.

The form for such footings can be made from rough 2x4s, held in place by wooden stakes driven into the ground about every 3' to 4' (Fig. 2).

For a footing poured in an area where drainage is a problem, lay a drain line along the outer edge of the form (Fig. 2). Allow for a drop of about 1" for each 20' of drain line. Backfill over the drain line with about 12" of crushed stone or gravel.

Before you pour the footing, be sure it will not prevent the natural run-off of water and will not divert the flow of water onto any neighboring property.

Allow ample time for the concrete to dry fully. If the footing is to carry an extremely heavy load, drying may require up to three days.

If gas, electric or water supply lines must pass through the footing, you must make an opening. Do this by nailing together four pieces of 2x8 and laying them in the proper position before the footing is poured. In many cases, a 4" piece of drain tile will serve the same purpose. Mark the depth and location of the utility opening on your foundation plan or with a stake so you can find it easily later on.

For large concrete foundation jobs that cannot be finished with one pouring, divide the forms into sections you can handle. Complete one before proceeding to the next.

Make sure your footing is level by placing a level across the footings about every 8'. Adjust the height of the 2x4s by raising or lowering the stakes to make the 2x4s level on each side at all points around the footing.

Fill the form to the top edge, then level the freshly poured concrete by pulling a 2x4 or some other straightedge along the top of the form (Fig. 3).

Work the straightedge back and forth–in a sawing motion–until the concrete is level. Fill in any low spots with additional concrete. Wipe away surplus concrete in the high spots.

Every block wall–regardless of height or length–should be placed on a secure footing of poured concrete (Fig. 2). A block barbecue grill or outdoor fireplace requires a large concrete pad as a footing.

The footing should always be poured deep enough so that the base is below the frost line.

Always make the footing at least twice as deep as the thickness of the wall and twice as wide (Fig. 2). For example, if you are using 8" blocks, the footing should be at least 8" deep and about 16" wide. This footing will provide a 4" rim on each side of the block when laid.

The form for such footings can be made from rough 2x4s, held in place by wooden stakes driven into the ground about every 3' to 4' (Fig. 2).

For a footing poured in an area where drainage is a problem, lay a drain line along the outer edge of the form (Fig. 2). Allow for a drop of about 1" for each 20' of drain line. Backfill over the drain line with about 12" of crushed stone or gravel.

Before you pour the footing, be sure it will not prevent the natural run-off of water and will not divert the flow of water onto any neighboring property.

If gas, electric or water supply lines must pass through the footing, you must make an opening. Do this by nailing together four pieces of 2x8 and laying them in the proper position before the footing is poured. In many cases, a 4" piece of drain tile will serve the same purpose. Mark the depth and location of the utility opening on your foundation plan or with a stake so you can find it easily later on.

For large concrete foundation jobs that cannot be finished with one pouring, divide the forms into sections you can handle. Complete one before proceeding to the next.

Make sure your footing is level by placing a level across the footings about every 8'. Adjust the height of the 2x4s by raising or lowering the stakes to make the 2x4s level on each side at all points around the footing.

Fill the form to the top edge, then level the freshly poured concrete by pulling a 2x4 or some other straightedge along the top of the form (Fig. 3).

Work the straightedge back and forth–in a sawing motion–until the concrete is level. Fill in any low spots with additional concrete. Wipe away surplus concrete in the high spots.

Allow ample time for the concrete to dry fully. If the footing is to carry an extremely heavy load, drying may require up to three days.

Select the block size you will be using in the left-hand column. The right-hand column will show you the number of blocks and the amount of mortar required for the job.

You can also estimate for the number of blocks required by allowing three 8" blocks for every 4' on each course of blocks

Before starting to lay the blocks, drive stakes into the ground and build a form at each corner (Fig. 5). These stakes and forms can be made from scrap pieces of wood used on the job.

Locate the exact corner by stretching lines from one corner form to the other as illustrated in Fig. 5. The exact corner will be the point at which the two lines cross.

Drop a plumb bob down from each line, both at the corner point where the lines cross and at positions about 2' out in each direction.

Determine the exact number of blocks required for the first course by laying out a course of block on the dry concrete (Fig. 6). Do not use mortar for this test run–you are merely determining the number of blocks required for the job.

Be sure to use the corner blocks where needed, and cut blocks as required.

Use scrap pieces of 3/8" plywood to fill in the mortar joint between each block. This is the thickness of the mortar when applied.

After this test run, remove the blocks and prepare for the actual laying of the first course.

Drop plumb bobs down from the corner string and at positions about 3' out from the corner (Fig. 5). Mark the location of the corner block on the footing base as shown.

Spread the mortar out about 1" deep and 8" wide in the marked area (Fig 7). Extend this mortar out for a distance of about three or four blocks in one direction.

Put a furrow in the center of the mortar with a trowel. This furrow will force the mortar to the edge of the block when it is laid (Fig. 7).

Set the corner block first. Be sure you are using the correct block (finished end).

Check the starting corner block, both horizontally and vertically, and take time to get it positioned correctly. All other blocks will align with this starter block, so it's very important to set it exactly.

Follow this same procedure as you reach the other corners, laying the first course out about two or three blocks in each direction.

Tie a line between two bricks and stretch it between the two corner blocks on the first course.

Continue to lay the base mortar on the footing as the course continues. Apply mortar to the ends of the blocks with a trowel and place the block in position (Fig. 8).

Keep all mortar joints at about 3/8". If necessary to make spacing adjustments, fill some mortar joints 1/2" to 3/4".

If you must cut a block to fill a course, use a masonry chisel as illustrated in Fig. 9. Draw a line on both sides of the block where the cut is to be made. Strike the chisel with a bricklayer's hammer. You will soon learn to make such cuts easily.

After you've laid four or five blocks, use a long mason's level or some type of straightedge to check the alignment of the blocks (Fig. 10). Check both the tops of the blocks and the outside edge for correct alignment.

Tap the blocks into position to make any alignment corrections while the mortar is still wet. Never attempt to move a block after the concrete begins to set.

Build up the corners first. Always keep the corners about a block or two higher than other runs until you finish the job.

Keep the guidelines between the corners at all times. They will help you keep the blocks level at all points in each course. Be careful not to knock the lines out of alignment.

Always keep the guidelines tight. If one side gets bumped out of position, take a minute to level it.

Use a trowel to cut away any surplus mortar. Throw the surplus mortar back onto the mortarboard. Keep turning the mortar with your trowel throughout the project so small portions will not harden.

Use a piece of 3/4" plyboard or the bed of a wheelbarrow as a mortarboard. Always wet the board or the wheelbarrow bed before placing the mortar in it.

Never mix more mortar than you can use in about an hour and a half or two hours. On a hot day, keep the mortar covered with a piece of plastic to hold in moisture.

Use as much water as the mortar will take and still remain elastic.

Continue to stagger the blocks–working from the corners–and build the wall to the desired height.

Take time to level each course. Use a level that is at least 3' long.

Lay all blocks with the thicker end of the face shell up.

Keep a leveling string at the top of each course on each run of block.

Measure both the length and the height of the wall after every two or three runs. Also, hold your level diagonally along the block corners to check for accuracy (Fig. 11). If the blocks are being laid accurately, the corners will strike evenly along a level held in this position.

After all the blocks are laid and while the mortar can still be pressed with the fingers, take a jointer and finish the mortar joints to the appearance desired. Keep the jointer wet during this part of the job.

You may need to add reinforcing rods to walls built extremely high or in areas where ground pressures may vary.

Lay 1/4" reinforcing rods as illustrated, with the ends overlapped 2" to 3". Mortar can be placed directly over the rods.

If wood framing will be attached to the top run, set an anchor bolt every 3' to 4' in the last run (Fig. 12).

If a load-bearing wall intersects with the outside wall, it should be tied to the main wall with metal tie bars (Fig. 13). Bars as shown should be set in place on at least every other run.

Nonload-bearing walls connecting to main walls can be tied in by laying a 16" strip of 1/2" mesh galvanized hardware cloth directly on top of the block.

A strip of this cloth should be used for every other course at the tie-in point.

If the concrete blocks are being laid as a fence or barrier, the top course can be finished off by filling in the holes with fresh concrete mix and a trowel.

For a neater and more enduring finish, use patio blocks for an attractive and weatherproof finish.

You can use many different types of concrete. Ready-mix concrete, which requires only the addition of water, is the simplest to use. It is ideal for small jobs but can be quite expensive for big projects.

Transit-mix concrete is delivered to the job site in revolving barrel trucks. This is the simplest and easiest way to buy concrete for large projects. However, you'll be paying for the delivery of the concrete and the convenience of premixing. Check local sources for competitive prices on transit-mix concrete.

You-Haul concrete is available in some areas. You buy the concrete and rent a You-Haul trailer mixer for transporting the concrete to the work site with your car or truck. Again, you have to pay for the premixing and the trailer rental. Check locally for prices on You-Haul concrete.

The least expensive way to purchase concrete for large projects is to buy the dry ingredients and mix them yourself at the job site. Of course, this requires a lot of work, and you must either rent or purchase the necessary mixers and other equipment.

The type of concrete you use will be based on the amount of concrete you need and local prices for the various types.

There are four basic elements in concrete: Portland cement; a fine aggregate, such as sand; a coarse aggregate, such as crushed rock or gravel; and water. 

The aggregates (sand and gravel) usually make up from 2/3 to 3/4 of the volume of any finished concrete. All aggregates should be clean and free of organic matter.

The water used for mixing concrete should be clean and free of acids, alkalies, oils and sulfates.

Although the ingredients in concrete are always the same, the finished results depend on the proper mix of the four elements.

The proper mix of ingredients is determined by the intended use of the concrete.

For foundations and retaining walls, use about 6-1/4 gallons of water for each sack of cement if the sand is damp. However, if the sand is wet, 5-1/2 gallons of water will easily do the job.

Concrete that's mixed for pouring sidewalks, stepping stones, slabs, etc., requires about 5-3/4 gallons of water per sack of cement if the sand is damp and about 5 gallons if the sand is wet.

If you are pouring heavy footings for walls where waterproofing is not a factor, mix the concrete with 1 part cement, 3 parts sand and 4 parts gravel.

For sidewalks, steps, driveways, etc., use 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand and 3 parts gravel.

For small jobs, you can measure the ingredients using an ordinary galvanized or plastic pail.

A wooden box measuring 12" x 12" x 12" (Fig. 1) can give you an accurate measurement for 1 cubic foot of sand or concrete.

Nail 3/4" half-round to one side of the box at carefully measured points. This will allow you to measure 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 of a cubic foot.

Always follow the mixing instructions on the bag when mixing your concrete.

Fig. 2 provides a table showing the number of cubic yards of concrete required to pour slabs of varying sizes and thicknesses.

To use this table, multiply the length by the width of the area you plan to cover with concrete. This gives you the square footage of the area.

Now, refer to the number of square feet and the thickness in inches of the slab you plan to pour. The figure on the appropriate line shows the number of cubic yards of concrete you'll need to do the job.

For example, if you are planning to pour a patio that's 10' x 14', you have a total of 140 square feet.

Suppose you plan to pour the patio slab 5" thick. Consult the table–you'll find that 100 square feet of a slab this thick requires 1.5 cubic yards of concrete and an additional 50 square feet would require .77 cubic yards. Therefore, you would need 2.27 cubic yards of concrete to pour the slab.

Almost any concrete job requires some type of form. In some cases, forms are built above the ground while others require digging.

Dig down to the desired level (Fig. 3), and build forms to the shape and size needed for the concrete job you are starting.

Use temporary posts to establish the proper grade or slope of the concrete.

Nail the stakes lightly to the forms used (Fig. 3), or clamp the forms temporarily to the stakes with a "C" clamp.

Use a level to ensure that you have the proper grade or slope of the concrete form.

After the proper grade has been set, drive in permanent stakes and nail the form to the stakes.

After the forms are set, spray the entire area lightly with a garden hose, then pour in the concrete.

After the form is filled, tamp the freshly poured concrete to compact it. Use a tamper, or put on rubber boots and walk around the poured concrete area to make sure it is compacted around the edges.

Small concrete areas can be compacted with a 2x4. For larger areas, you may want to rent roller tampers.

After the concrete in the form has been thoroughly tamped, use a straightedged 2x4 as a screed for leveling the concrete (Fig. 4).

Work the 2x4 back and forth in sawing fashion to level the concrete at all points across the form.

Purchase a magnesium concrete rake with an extension handle to level concrete in hard-to-reach places.

When the concrete has set sufficiently to support a 2x8 plank, use the plank as a straightedge to guide a groover (Fig. 5) to cut contraction joints (Fig. 6). Contraction joints are necessary to allow hardened concrete to expand and contract in extreme temperatures.

On sidewalks or other narrow concrete areas, contraction joints should be cut every 4' to 6'. 

On patios or other large concrete areas, expansion joints should be cut in each direction every 4' to 6'. Use two lengths of beveled clapboard placed in the position shown in Fig. 7 to cut these joints.

Drive a nail into the top of one board and paint both boards with motor oil. The boards should then be embedded in the concrete, as shown in Fig. 7.

After the concrete begins to set, the board with the nail in the top can be removed, leaving the second board hidden. This provides an adequate contraction joint for a large expanse of concrete.

In some cases, concrete needs reinforcement with steel mesh (Fig. 8). You can use regular fencing material with 2' x 4' or 2' x 6' mesh.

If the pressure on the concrete is to come from the top of the slab, the reinforcement should be laid deep near the bottom of the slab.

If the strong point of the slab is at the center and the pressure will come on either end, the reinforcement should be laid as close to the top of the slab as possible.

You can give concrete a smooth finish with a trowel and a float (Fig. 9). The float will smooth out the concrete on the first rubbing.

A trowel (Fig. 10) is used to give the concrete a finishing touch.

You can create a light, swirled pattern by holding a steel trowel flat against the surface of the slab and moving it around in a swirling motion. Do this the last time you trowel the concrete.

For a heavier swirling pattern, use a wood float instead of a trowel and do the swirling while the concrete is still fairly wet.

Create a soft pattern of parallel lines by dragging a soft brush straight across a moderately wet surface (Fig. 11).

To achieve heavy lines, drag the softbrush across while the surface is still wet.

For light-textured parallel lines, trowel the concrete and allow it to dry slightly before dragging the brush across (Fig. 11).

Use an ordinary broom to create a very attractive and practical pattern in concrete (Fig. 11). This technique provides a rough finish that makes the concrete surface much safer when wet.

You can make all brush strokes in the same direction, or each block between contraction joints can be brushed in opposite directions for a unique appearance.

Use an ordinary garage floor brush to create attractive wavy patterns in newly laid concrete. The wavy patterns enhance the appearance and make the surface safer when wet.

You can create a flagstone pattern by tooling the concrete after it has been leveled off with a darby or float. To make the flagstone pattern, use an 18" length of 1/2" or 3/4" copper pipe that is slightly bent (Fig. 12).

Trowel and brush the concrete surface lightly after the flagstone pattern has been created in the wet concrete.

There are also forms available for concrete that will create a flagstone walk. These work extremely well for smaller projects. For larger areas a relative new concrete stamping process creates the same look on driveways and patios. Contractors, due to the cost of the equipment needed, normally do this concrete stamping.

Whatever pattern you choose to create, remember, the pattern should not trap water and cause it to stand on the concrete. Standing water is one of the major causes for concrete failure.

Special colorants are available for concrete. When added to the concrete mix, these colorants can make concrete look like red brick or any number of other materials. Concrete can be colored to accent the color of your home.

All concrete must be given time to cure. During this period, the concrete surface should be kept wet by repeated hosing with a fine mist.

This hosing process should be done at least twice during any 24-hour period for about three days after the concrete is poured.

Concrete poured indoors can be left exposed. However, you should place a guard rail around the area to keep any child or animal from walking on the surface until it is dry.

Concrete laid in the open air or in direct sunlight should be covered with burlap, roofing felt or building paper during the curing period. Remove this protective covering before wetting the concrete.

Never attempt a big concrete job on an extremely hot day. Concrete sets extremely fast in direct sunshine. It's better to wait until mid-afternoon–even if this means you must work late into the evening.

You can improve the looks of the concrete and make it last longer by sealing the concrete after it has thoroughly cured. Sealers can either be clear or colored. Some coatings have an additive that provides better traction on the concrete surface. Be careful when choosing the coatings and sealers. Some are extremely slippery when wet and should not be used outside.

You can repair hairline cracks in concrete with a grout made of Portland cement and water. Add just enough water to the cement to form a thick paste.

Moisten the old concrete along the hairline crack with water for several hours before adding the grout. Moistening the concrete prevents it from drawing the water from the grout, which will dry out the mixture. Although the old concrete should be moist, no water should be standing on the surface when the grout is applied.

After the hairline crack has been moistened and thoroughly cleaned, apply the grout with a putty knife or pointing trowel. Force the grout into the crack as much as possible. Then smooth it off so it is level with the original concrete.

Allow the patched area to dry about two hours. Then, cover the area with a piece of plastic sheeting or a board.

Keep the area covered for about five days. Lift the covering once each day and sprinkle the area with water.

Cracks in sidewalks that are larger than hairline cracks must be enlarged before they can be satisfactorily repaired. Enlarge the crack along its entire length with a cold chisel and hammer (Fig. 1).

Make the crack wider at the bottom than at the top (Fig. 2). This is known as undercutting. It helps to bond the new concrete with the older concrete.

Undercut the crack to a minimum depth of 1". The depth of the undercutting depends on the size and depth of the crack to be repaired.

After the crack has been thoroughly undercut, remove all loose material and brush the area with a wire brush.

Use a garden hose or a tire pump to blow or wash away the dust in the crack.

The new concrete patch will hold better if a concrete adhesive is used first. There are many types of concrete adhesives. Acrylic resin–a milky fluid–is one common type. Brush the adhesive into the undercut area and allow it to dry until it becomes tacky (Fig. 3).

If you do not use a cement adhesive, thoroughly brush and soak the area to be patched. Moistening the area prevents the old concrete from absorbing all the moisture in the concrete patch. Although it should be moist, no water should be standing on the area where the patch is to be applied.

For small patching jobs, use a pre-mixed concrete patch. If you use ready-mix concrete patch, all you need to add is water.

If you mix your own concrete patch, use one part Portland cement to two-and-a-half parts of fine, clean sand. Heavier concrete patch jobs call for one part of Portland cement to two parts of sand to three parts of gravel.

Tamp the concrete patch mix tightly into the undercut area. Be sure to fill all areas completely.

When the mixture begins to set, smooth it down with either a metal trowel or a wooden float (Fig. 4). Use a metal trowel for a smooth finish. For a rough surface, use a wood float for the finishing job.

After the patch is completed, allow it to dry for about two hours. Then cover the patched area completely with plastic sheeting or boards.

Keep the area covered for about five days. Lift the cover once each day to wet down the repaired area, permitting the new concrete to cure correctly.

 You can repair a crack in a concrete driveway in basically the same way as a crack in a concrete sidewalk. However, since the driveway must carry heavier weight loads, the repaired area must withstand much greater pressure.

Use a gravel mix, rather than a sand mix, for repairing concrete driveways. This mix is one part Portland cement, two parts sand and three parts gravel.

Thoroughly clean and then undercut the crack. Brush cement adhesive into the undercut area.

Undercut the cracked area to a greater depth and make the cracks considerably wider than when repairing a sidewalk. This extra depth and width increases the strength of the repair job.

Follow all of the steps outlined previously in repairing a crack in a sidewalk to repair a crack in a concrete driveway.

After the gravel mix has been applied, level the new patch mix off with a trowel or float, as you would do when repairing a sidewalk (Fig. 4).

Cover the patched area for five days, wetting it down once each day.

Do not drive an automobile over the patched area for at least five days. This gives the newly patched section time to dry thoroughly before it must carry the heavy load of an automobile or truck.

 Repairing a crack in a concrete wall requires basically the same steps as repairing a crack in a sidewalk or driveway.

The cracked area must first be undercut and widened in basically the same way as previously described for a sidewalk (Fig. 2).

The widening and undercutting can be done with a cold chisel and hammer (Fig. 5). The width and depth of the undercutting depends on the size and length of the crack.

After all loose material has been chipped away, thoroughly clean the undercut area around the crack with a stiff wire brush (Fig. 6). Do not brush the area enough to smooth off the edges. The rough surface created by the chiseling provides a good bond for the new concrete you'll apply.

When the enlarged area has been thoroughly cleaned, apply cement adhesive with a brush. This is the same cement adhesive used when repairing sidewalks. If you do not have a cement adhesive, prime the area with a thin, creamy mixture of Portland cement and water.

In some cases, you can make the patch by simply moistening the area thoroughly before filling the crack with concrete (Fig. 7). Although the moistening is important, a concrete adhesive or the mixture of Portland cement and water is much more desirable than moistening with water only.

You can use a ready-mix concrete patch for small cracks in cement walls. Force the mixture into the cutaway area with a pointing trowel (Fig. 8). Be sure to use enough pressure to force the patch mix into all the cutaway areas in the crack.

It may be difficult to conceal the patch, since the finish on the old concrete is difficult to duplicate. To conceal the patch, simply experiment with matching the original finish by roughing up the patched area while it is still workable. Try using an old broom, a float, or any other tool to create the desired rough finish.

You can patch holes and broken areas in concrete walls by simply clearing out the hole in the same basic way you would undercut a crack.

After the hole has been thoroughly cleaned and cut away, apply the cement adhesive and insert the patch mix into the hole with a pointing trowel (Fig. 9).

Moisten the area and cure it after the patch is applied in the same way cracks in cement driveways or sidewalks are moistened and cured

 How you patch holes in sidewalks and driveways depends on the depth and the size of the hole. If the hole is extremely deep and large, you must undercut it as previously described and fill the area with a gravel mix.

Small, shallow holes in flat-surfaced concrete–such as driveways, patios or sidewalks–can easily be repaired with latex cement (Fig. 10). If the hole is small and shallow, no chipping away is required.

Small, shallow holes need only to be cleaned thoroughly before adding the latex cement.

This cleaning can usually be done with a wire brush, which removes all the small pieces of loose concrete when you rub the area thoroughly (Fig. 11).

After using the wire brush on the damaged area, use a lighter brush to remove the loose particles that were dislodged by the wire brush. Then, wash the area to be repaired with a garden hose (Fig. 12).

After the cleaning is done, you are ready to apply the latex cement. This usually comes in 5-lb. cans, with the liquid latex in a smaller can inside a larger can.

Pour the liquid latex into the larger can and thoroughly mix it with the latex cement to form a heavy paste. Apply this paste to the area to be patched in approximately 1/4" layers. Smooth each layer with a trowel and allow to partially dry before applying the next layer.

Build up the latex cement 1/4" at a time until it reaches the same level as the original concrete. Then, smooth out the area with a trowel or float as you would finish regular concrete (Fig. 13).

 You can repair broken corners on concrete with latex or epoxy cement (Fig. 14). A broken corner should be thoroughly cleaned and moistened before the mixture is applied.

After the corner has been thoroughly brushed and washed, build up the latex or epoxy cement mix 1/4" at a time, as previously described. If the area to be repaired is quite large, you may need to build a small form to hold the mix while it is drying.

If you're bothered with leaks or seepage through your basement floor or walls, the problem can be solved. However, it takes time and effort, and you have to do the job right. But it can be done.

There are three basic causes of seepage and cracks in basements. First, the original workmanship may be poor. Second, the house may have settled, causing cracks in either the floor or walls. Finally, water pressure from the outside may have built up and be forcing water through the walls.

Such leaks are easy to detect (Fig. 1). Moisture often begins to seep through at the area where the floor and walls joins or along cracks that may appear in the wall or floor.

If there are no holes or cracks in the basement walls, you can apply a waterproofing compound directly to the walls by steps described later. However, almost all basement leaks are caused by either cracks or holes in the walls or floors that should be repaired before waterproofing is applied.

You can usually fill hairline cracks with a regular waterproofing mix. However, cracks larger than 1/8" should be cleaned out and patched before you apply the waterproof mix (Fig. 2).

You can purchase special epoxy and latex cement formulas for mortaring small repair jobs or for brushing on as a waterproof coating. However, for a large repair job, you will probably want to mix your own mortar for patching holes and cracks before you start applying the waterproofing coat.

Mortar for filling holes and cracks in cement basement walls or concrete block walls is usually made by mixing one part cement and two parts of fine sand with just enough water to make a rather stiff mortar.

If the water is merely seeping through the basement wall, force the mixture of mortar cement into the crack with an ordinary trowel or putty knife. This should correct any leakage problem.

However, if outside pressure is forcing water through the wall, the problem is often extremely difficult to correct.

If water is seeping in under pressure, you must chip out a dovetail groove for the entire length of the cracked area (Fig. 3). Use a regular chipping chisel and hammer or a cold chisel to make a dovetail groove.

Fig. 4 shows both the correct and incorrect ways to enlarge the cracked area before mending it. Use a chipping or cold chisel to create a dovetail space (Fig. 4). This provides a holding area for the new mortar.

An incorrect groove, as illustrated, causes the mortar to fall out of the repaired area when it dries. Take time to do it right–it will pay off in the long run.

Repair holes in a concrete or concrete block wall in the same manner. Chip out the faulty or broken area in dovetail fashion. The dovetail cut (Fig. 4) provides a holding edge for the new mortar.

When the faulty cement around the edge of the hole has been completely chipped away, fill the hole with the same mortar mix recommended for filling cracks (Fig. 5). This mixture is one part cement to two parts fine sand mixed with just enough water to create a stiff mortar.

Place the mortar in the newly cleaned hole, and smooth it out with an ordinary trowel. Be sure the mortar is pressed into all parts of the hole, leaving no air pockets.

You may need to position a weep pipe through the wall to permit the outside water trapped against the wall under pressure to escape.

In many cases, the weep pipe need only be temporary. In other cases, it is necessary to leave it in place and drain the water away through a basement sewer trap or with a sump pump (Fig. 6).

Insert the weep pipe at the point where the wall and the floor join or at the point where the pressure is greatest.

Use regular patching mortar to fill the crack, starting at the top and working toward the bottom. This permits a more secure bonding of the new mortar.

Use an ordinary pointing trowel. Completely fill the crack with mortar to where the weep pipe is installed.

Let the mortar set until it is completely dry. If the water entering through the weep pipe has slowed to a trickle, you can probably remove the pipe, fill the hole and eliminate the problem.

However, if water is still coming through the pipe with considerable force, leave the weep pipe in place and run the water into a sewer drain with a hose.

If you decide to remove the pipe and patch the hole, treat the cracked area right down to the spot where the wall and the floor come together (Fig. 7).

Next, make a cement plug from the mortar mix. Roll the plug into a cone shape that is slightly larger than the hole (Fig. 8).

Roll the plug of cement in your hands until it begins to stiffen. Then place the small end of the cone-like plug in the hole where the pipe was removed and tamp it into place (Fig. 9). It can be tamped just like a cork in a bottle.

Hold the cement plug in place with your fingers for three-to-five minutes, allowing it time to set. Place a heavy object over the plug during this three to five minute period to give it plenty of time to dry before it is exposed to the full water pressure.

After this period, remove your hand or the object holding the plug in place. By this time, the mortar plug should be dried sufficiently to close off the hole and prevent outside water from entering.

Fill and patch all holes and cracks according to these instructions. Then, you are ready to apply the waterproof mix.

First, moisten the basement wall with a fine spray before applying the waterproofing mix. Use a garden hose with the nozzle set to a fine spray. Although the walls should be damp when you apply the waterproof mix, no water should be standing on the wall surface.

You can purchase epoxy or latex waterproof mixes for treating basement walls and floors. Most of these mixes require you to add only water. If you use this type of mix, be sure to follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully.

Many waterproof mixes will not adhere to painted walls. You must first remove the old paint by sanding, wire brushing or sand-blasting the surface before the waterproof mixture will adhere.

It is also important to remember that no epoxy or latex waterproof coatings will bond to wet surfaces. Apply these materials to a surface that is completely dry.

If you prefer, you can make your own wall coating mixture of plain cement and water. The mix should form a slurry–a mixture that is the consistency of cream.

Use a stiff brush and a circular motion to rub the waterproof mix into the wall. Take time to fill every pore in the wall (Fig. 10).

First apply the coating at the bottom of the wall. This is where the water pressure is likely to be greatest.

Now brush the waterproofing mix to the top, then move back to the bottom, slowly applying additional layers of the mixture.

Brush the waterproofing mix only over the area where seepage or leakage is a problem (Fig. 11). Feather the mix out at the edges until you have completely covered the area where the leakage or seepage has occurred.

When the coating has dried so that it does not rub off, spray the area completely with water. Soak it thoroughly and let it set overnight.

After the wall has dried overnight, wet it down thoroughly with a garden hose and apply a second coat of the waterproofing mixture while the wall is still wet (Fig. 12). Use the same techniques for brushing on the second coat as you did for the first coat.

Use two coats in all cases. One coat simply will not correct the problem under normal conditions.

Step 5:  PACKING A LEAKING FLOOR JOINT

In many cases, the leaking problem in a basement is near the joint at the floor and wall. If the leaking is not a serious problem, you may be able to correct it by troweling on a double layer of waterproof coating at the floor joint.

Use an ordinary waterproof coating mixture as previously described. Be sure the floor is clean where the mixture is applied.

If the seepage of water is heavy, cut a dovetail joint where the floor and wall join (Fig. 13).

Use a chipping chisel and a hammer or an ordinary cold chisel.

Chip along the entire floor joint area to create a dovetail groove that will retain the waterproof mix (Fig. 14).

Take time to chip this groove the complete length of the leaking area. This is one of the most important steps in the repair job.

After the dovetail groove has been completely chipped away, clean it out thoroughly and prepare to apply the waterproofing mix. Use an ordinary brush or a tire pump to brush or blow the small pieces of cement out of the chipped area.

The chipped-out area is now ready for the mortar. Use the regular mixture of one part cement to two parts fine sand plus water. You can also use ready-mix ingredients.

A deck is a popular home improvement that not only adds to the value of your home, but provides a focal point for enjoying the outdoors. You'll want to carefully consider the design elements that go into your deck–it should include the features that match your lifestyle and complement the design of your house. Planning is the most important part of building a deck, because, chances are, you'll be living with your design for a long time.

There are three main considerations when planning a deck. Several questions must be answered in each topic. This document explains each topic and provides the background information you'll need to make informed choices.

How You Plan to Use Your Deck–The most important consideration in deck design is how you will use it. Do you entertain frequently, and if so, how large a group will you need space for? What kind of seating will you need–would you or your guests be more comfortable on built-in benches or patio furniture? Do you want the space arranged to accommodate conversations between small groups, or in one large common area? Will you need adequate lighting to entertain at night?

Try to imagine all the ways you'd like to use your deck, because most design elements will be based on those kinds of preferences.

Location–Chances are, the size and orientation of your property and house limit you to one or two deck locations, but within those limits, you may have more choices than you think. You may be able to add a door, build a walkway, or incorporate a privacy screen that will allow you to locate your deck so it is most convenient for your intended uses.

The climate in your area and the views you'll see are the major factors to consider when deciding where to place your deck. A northside deck will probably be the coolest location. Southern or western orientations may be too warm in the middle of the summer, unless you include an overhead screen, or build the deck around an existing shade tree.

You may be able to avoid prevailing winds by locating your deck where the house will provide some protection. Likewise, careful placement can minimize traffic noise, eliminate unwanted views, or provide additional privacy. If you plan to include a hot tub or swimming pool in your plans, privacy considerations for you and your guests may be very important.

Legal Considerations–Before you decide on a location, first check local zoning ordinances. They will limit the overall size of your deck, height of any privacy screens, and the minimum distance from your deck to your lot lines. Neighborhood or subdivision covenants may restrict the appearance of the structure, and you'll have to get approval for your design.

Also, check with the local building department to find out whether you'll be required to have a building permit, and what kind of plans you'll have to submit. Finally, be sure to check with your local utility companies to make sure you won't run afoul of utility rights-of-way, and to locate buried pipes and utility lines.

Size–You can build any size deck you want within legal limits. But even within those limits, a deck can be either too big or too small. The most important consideration (aside from cost) is use, but a huge deck can look out of place next to a small house, just as a tiny deck looks wrong with a big house. If you think your dream deck is too large for your house, break up the expanse by building smaller sections on multiple levels.

To test your ideas, measure the size you want on your lawn. Drive 4-foot stakes at the approximate corners, then tie string between them at about the height of the railings. Set your lawn furniture in the area to get an idea of how the space will work. The most common mistake people make is building a deck too small. The difference in cost between a deck that is a little too small and one that is the right size usually isn't that much.

One tip: If possible, size your deck in 2-foot or 4-foot increments. You'll have to buy standard lumber lengths anyway, and there's no point in wasting that material when you could have a larger deck for the same amount of money.

Shape and Decking Patterns–A deck can be any shape you want, and in fact, simple changes like an angled corner or a 45-degree decking pattern can dress up a house with a long, plain wall. Of course, a more complicated deck is more difficult to build, and may require more materials. You can also add visual interest by wrapping the deck around a corner, adding built-in benches, integrating a fence or screen on one side, or even adding an overhead screen.

Height–Usually, the decking should come to within 2 " of the bottom of the access door from the house, with steps leading from the deck to the ground. On sloped ground, you may want to build your deck in multiple levels to follow the slope. Typically, wherever the deck is more than 48" off the ground, codes require that the posts be braced to prevent swaying and racking.

Cutouts–A spa or hot tub can be set on the deck if the structure is reinforced to carry the weight of the water, or it can be set directly on a concrete slab on the ground, with the deck built around it. Existing trees and rocks can also be integrated into the deck by framing around them; then either cap the ends of the decking or contour the decking to the shape of the obstacle. If you work around a tree, leave at least 3" on all sides to allow for growth. Around a stationary object such as a boulder, leave about 1/4" so the decking can expand and contract with temperature and moisture changes.

Railings–Railings are the most prominent visual element in a deck, and offer great opportunity to use your imagination and creativity. They may be fastened to posts that run all the way to the ground, along the sides of the rim joists, or attached to the decking itself. They may include wood, metal, or even rope–nearly anything that satisfies structural requirements.

Your railing design will be limited primarily by building code regulations that are designed to ensure safety. Typically, those codes state that support posts may be no more than 6' apart, and that the railing may have no spaces larger than 4" x 4". The durability of your railing will also be affected by the design. For example, the ends of the railing posts should be covered or cut at an angle to shed water, to minimize cracking and splitting.

Steps and Stairs–Step and stair construction is closely regulated by building codes. As a rule, steps and stairs should be at least 36" wide–60" if you want two people to be able to pass each other comfortably. The rise (vertical distance between steps) should be no more than 7-1/2" and the width of a tread at least 10". The slope should not be too steep–a 7" riser with a 10-1/2" tread is a common combination. Building codes will also govern how the stair is supported and attached, and whether or not you need a railing

FIG. 7 - Anatomy of a deck. From the Sunset book, Deck Plans, ©Sunset Publishing Corporation. 

Step 1: 

Decking–If you choose pressure-treated lumber, you'll have a choice between 5/4 x 6 decking (1x5-1/2 actual size) or 2" material (typically 2x4 through 2x8, all 1-1/2" thick). The size and species of the decking you choose will determine the spacing between your joists. Recommended spacing for common decking boards is as follows: Top Image

Determining Joist Size–2x6s through 2x10s are the most common sizes used for joists. The beams that carry them are typically 4x6 through 4x10, often "built up" from doubled 2-inch lumber. Pressure-treated lumber is generally less expensive than redwood or cedar, and can be used for the substructure even when the decking and railing will be other species.

In most cases, you'll want to determine the spacing between beams first, then use a joist size appropriate to that spacing. If the deck will be no more than 6' off the ground, a common recommendation is to space the support beams no more than 12' apart. As a rule, you'll only need one beam along the outer edge of the deck (a ledger bolted to the house supports the other end of the deck).

Middle Image

Determining Beam Size–Since support posts are often run through the decking to serve as railing posts, the specifications below are given for posts that will be spaced no more than 6' apart, with beams that are no more than 12' apart. With these spacing specifications, 4x4 posts are adequate for any deck less than 6' off the ground.

Preparation–First, prepare the ground under the deck by removing the sod. Slope the ground away from the house a minimum of 1" every 15' to provide drainage. Once the deck is finished, the ground should be covered with 6 mil. black polyethylene to keep weeds from growing.

Measure and mark the position of the ledger along the wall. The height of the ledger should be 1" below the bottom of the door plus the thickness of the decking, plus the depth of the joists if you plan to set the joists on the ledger and beams rather than using joist hangers. It makes no difference which way you set the joists, as long as your layout is consistent.

Mount a 2x6 ledger to the wall with 1/2" lag screws. The ledger must be level, and the lag screws should be long enough to penetrate the studs at least 3". Use two lag screws at each end, and one at each wall stud (typically 16" on center) in between. Install a "Z"-shaped flashing above the ledger to shed water, or space the ledger away from the wall with washers (Fig. 1).

Layout–To establish the outside perimeter of the deck, measure out from each end of the ledger about 18" beyond the outside edge of the deck. Set up batterboards (Fig. 2) as shown, then run taut strings from each end of the ledger to the batterboards to establish the sides of the deck.

Run a third string between the batterboards to establish the outside edge of the deck. Square the layout by measuring the opposite diagonals, then adjusting the ledger-to-batterboard strings until both measurements are equal. Take care to maintain the correct distance between the strings.

Footing and Piers (Fig. 3)–Use a plumb bob from the string to establish the location of the footings. The holes for the footings must be deeper than the maximum frost penetration in your area, and deep enough to rest on undisturbed soil. It's a good idea to dig 6" deeper and fill the bottom of the hole with gravel, to allow drainage.

Mix concrete and pour the footings. To find the number of 90# bags of ready-mixed concrete you'll need for each 12x12 footing, measure the depth of the footing in inches and divide by 8. As you finish each pour, set a precast pier on the footing so it extends about 6" above the ground level. Use a thin cement mix to bond the piers to the footings.

Posts–After the concrete has set, stand the posts on the piers. Use temporary braces and a level to plumb the posts. Once the posts are set, run a mason's line from the top of the ledger to each post and use a line level to mark it for cutting. The height of the post should be equal to the height of the ledger minus the depth of the beam that will be set on it.

Beams–Fasten post-to-beam connectors on top of the posts with nails and 1/2"x5-1/2" hex bolts, then set the beams into the connector. Plumb and square the assembly, then secure the beams as you did the posts. If local building codes require it, install 2x6 diagonal cross braces and secure them with 1/2"x4-1/2" lag screws (Fig. 4).

Joists (Fig. 5)–Mark the joist locations on both the beams and ledger, either 16" or 24" o.c., as per your design. Set the joists in place with the crowns up. If the deck is wide enough that you need two sets of joists (and if you set the joists over the beams rather than hanging them from joist hangers), splice the connections by overlapping each pair of joists at least 1' and nailing them together with 8d galvanized nails (fig. 6). Install blocking between the joists wherever required (Fig. 7). Blocking requirements are determined by your local building codes. Finally, nail the rim joist across the ends of the joists.

Stairs–Build any stairs you will need. Instructions for building outdoor stairs are covered in an accompanying brochure.

Decking–Deck boards should be laid with the bark side up (fig. 5), and with both ends centered over a joist. Stagger the joints of side-by-side deck boards so they don't line up. Notch the boards around posts or other obstructions, leaving 1/8" space for drainage.

2"-thick deck boards should be spaced approximately 1/8"; most builders set a 16d nail between the boards as they fasten them. 5/4"'x6" pressure-treated decking may be placed with each board flush against the next; natural shrinkage will provide the proper spacing.

Fasten the deck boards at each joist (Fig. 8). Use two fasteners per support point for decking up to 6" wide, or three fasteners for wider boards. Deck screws or clips are generally better than nails, but all fasteners must be hot-dipped galvanized, aluminum, or stainless steel (Fig. 9). If you use nails, blunt the points by tapping them with your hammer, to avoid splitting the decking. 

Let the decking run over the edge of the structure, then saw the ends off after all boards are laid.

Railings–Secure the railing posts at each corner of the deck, and on each side of the stairs. Then secure the field posts, spaced equally between the corners but no farther apart than allowed by local building codes (typically 6'). Nail the sub-railings and cap rail in place, then add the balusters.

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

As a rule, you should set fence posts about 6' to 8' apart. The spacing of the posts depends on the type of fence you build, the terrain, the purpose of the fence and other such factors.

Set the corner or end post first. Then stretch a line from each corner or end post to align all the posts in between.

Drive a stake every 6' to 8' at the exact position where the post hole is to be dug (Fig. 1).

Take time to measure and position the posts accurately. The appearance and the structural strength of your fence depends a great deal on the positioning of the fence posts.

Set all wood fence posts with about 1/3 of their total length buried in the ground. This is especially important on corner posts and any posts that will carry heavy weight or withstand high wind pressure.

Use a regular post hole digger to dig the post holes. Dig the holes straight to the proper depth at each stake marker.

You can anchor the posts more firmly by making the holes slightly larger at the bottom than at the top (Fig. 2). Place a large stone or two shovels full of gravel in the bottom of each hole. This provides drainage to avoid excessive moisture at the base of each post.

Use a wood preservative to treat the section of the post that will be underground. Allow the post to stand overnight in the preservative so it can become well-saturated.

You can pack the posts with either dirt or concrete. In either case, place two or three shovels full of gravel in the bottom of each hole before the post is placed into position.

Be sure the posts are in an exact, upright position (Fig. 3). You can check the alignment of each post with a regular level. You can also check the alignment of the posts in one direction by sighting from one end of the row of posts to the other.

Brace each post with stakes after it is properly aligned (Fig. 3). Keep the stakes in position until the concrete (if used) has thoroughly set. Remove the nails holding the braces and readjust the post until it is in accurate alignment.

When the post is properly aligned, tamp it thoroughly to pack the dirt (if used) around the base of the post. Be sure you do not alter the alignment of the post during the tamping process.

When the post is firmly in position, build a mound around it to help eliminate water standing at the post base (Fig. 4). Slope the concrete slightly away from the post and round it off with a trowel. Tamp the concrete lightly to eliminate any air bubbles left in the mixture that can act as water pockets.

Provide extra bracing at all corners (Fig. 5). A corner post must carry the weight of fence stretched in two directions, so it should be set in both directions.

Allow the posts to stand several days and settle firmly in position before adding the fence.

The heads of posts should be rounded, capped or slanted to help eliminate accumulating water, which can cause rotting (Fig. 6). This is well-worth the effort since it allows the posts to last.

Attach a top and bottom rail to the fence posts (Fig. 7). There are three basic ways to do this.

The center illustration shows the top rail being nailed to the top of the post. This is an ideal installation for many types of fencing structures. The top rail can always be joined to another rail in the center of a post this way.

If the rail is added on the body of the post rather than at the top, attach it with a groove, a wood block or a metal bracket.

You can attach the bottom rail to the post by either of the two outside illustrations.

Fig. 8 illustrates several other ways to attach a rail to a fence post. Study these illustrations carefully. The type of joint you use to attach the fence supports to the post depends primarily on the type of fence you are building.

The lap joint is one of the easiest to use. The grooved joint does basically the same job, but the rail is grooved into the post rather than being nailed to the post surface.

The butt joint is a little more difficult to make but is often better. The mortised joint is even neater than the butt joint, but you must cut a mortise into the post for this joint.

The slotted joint is commonly used on decorative fences. Treat all slotted joints with preservative to prevent rotting in the grooved areas.

Take time to measure from the top rail to be sure the bottom rail on each is in perfect alignment (Fig. 9). After you have measured one post, cut a measuring stick to prevent having to make an actual measurement on each post. The stick can be used to apply the same measurement to each post.

There are literally hundreds of variations in fence styles and construction materials. There is pre-assembled wood fencing sections as well as fencing materials made from recycled milk jugs. The type of fence you use depends primarily on the purpose.

Fences like the type shown in Fig. 10 are used primarily for barriers. They are easy to build and provide an adequate barrier. However, they are usually not very decorative and they provide very little, if any, privacy.

Fences like those illustrated in Fig. 11 provide barriers and are more attractive than an ordinary fence. With a little shrubbery or plants, such fences can provide very attractive barriers along property lines.

Fences such as those illustrated in Fig. 12 are primarily privacy screens. They can be built as tall as needed out of many different materials. Their primary purpose is privacy.

Consider your needs when selecting the style of your fence. If you want a simple barrier, a wire fence or a simple style fence such as illustrated in Fig. 10 will work fine.

For a barrier that enhances the appearance, consider styles similar to those illustrated in Fig. 11.

For added privacy, consider the styles illustrated in Fig. 12.

Regardless of the type of fence you plan to build, be sure you know exactly where your property line is located. If you are uncertain about the location of the line, check into it or work out an agreement on the fence location with your neighbor.

Also, check any local ordinances applying to fences before beginning construction. Call the building department of your local city hall or ask for the local government office that regulates construction to be sure you abide by city codes.

Try to keep the bottom rail of any fence at least 2" above the ground. This helps eliminate the problem of decay and makes it easier to trim grass around the base of the fence.

Fig. 13 illustrates four basic styles of easy-to-build fence. Each style has the same basic top, center and bottom rail construction. However, the fences look entirely different with the various rail treatments.

Study the designs in Fig. 13 carefully. Decide which of these styles you prefer, or use a little imagination and create your own fencing design to apply to the basic rail fencing structure.

Picket fences are very popular and easy to build. With a little ingenuity you can create attractive picket designs. Study the designs in Fig. 14. Use the designs shown in Fig. 14 or your own designs to create a distinctive picket fence.

Make sure that all the pickets are spaced by inserting a loose picket between the picket previously nailed into position and the picket to be nailed. Use this easy method throughout the entire fencing construction.

A basket weave fence is often used on a sloping terrain (Fig. 16). This style of fence allows you to raise or lower each post.

Use a good-quality board to build a basket weave fence. Boards full of knots may break easily when placed under the stress of basket weaving.

A simple board fence is easy to build and can be quite attractive (Fig. 17). You can place the boards on one side or alternate them from side to side.

The board fence provides both a barrier and privacy. It can be built as tall as needed and then stained, painted or left natural.

You can design a siding fence to match the siding on your home of this style. In fact, you can use the same siding that was used on the home to build the fence.

The siding fence can be covered on one side or both. Then, you can paint it to match or harmonize with the paint on your home.

These are only a few of the many styles of fencing available. Fences are easy to build, and the materials are readily available

The water pressure in most residential systems isn't great enough to water an entire lawn at once. As a result, most systems are divided into circuits, each with its own control valve. Control valves are operated by an electronic controller that turns each circuit on and off according to the schedule you set.

The system consists of standard PVC pipe running from your existing water supply line. At each sprinkler, the pipe connects to a riser that feeds the sprinkler head. Sprinkler heads are designed to throw water in a full circle, a half circle, or a quarter circle. There are two types: rotary sprinkler heads extend above the ground permanently, and pop-up heads are designed to be flush with the ground when off, so you can mow over them.

The first step in planning your system is to check with your local building department and get any permits you may need. Then make a sketch of your property, showing the locations of all structures, walkways and driveways, and trees and shrubs (Fig. 1). Call your local utility companies and have them come out and mark the location of buried gas, electrical, and telephone lines. Note those locations on your sketch.

Next, determine your water pressure and flow rate. Borrow or rent a water pressure gauge and attach it to a hose bibb. Turn the water on full (with all other water in the house off) to find the pressure. Systems vary, but you'll probably need a minimum of 20 pounds per square inch (psi) pressure to install sprinklers.

Check the flow rate by placing a one-gallon bucket under a hose bibb, turning the water on full (with all other water in the house off) and time how long it takes to fill the bucket. Divide the number of seconds by 60 to find the gallons per minute (gpm) capacity of your line. The result of this test will determine the size of each sprinkler circuit.

Then plot the locations of sprinkler heads on your sketch. Multiply the throw distance of the heads (usually 15 feet) by 1.4 to find the spacing between sprinkler heads, so the areas covered by each head overlap. In windy areas, space the sprinkler heads the same as the throw rating.

Finally, divide the system into circuits. The manufacturer's instructions will include an output chart that gives you a gpm rating for each sprinkler head. Divide the gpm capacity of your water line by the rating of each head to find the number of sprinkler heads that you can put on each circuit. Never combine different types of sprinkler heads (e.g., lawn sprinklers with low-shrub sprinklers) on the same circuit.

As a rule, you'll use 3/4" PVC pipe to lay a system with circuits that are less than 100' long, or 1" pipe for circuits over 100'. In any case, your system pipe will be no larger than the supply line you tap into.

The first step in installing the system is to build a manifold. A manifold is a group of control valves connected to a length of PVC pipe, spaced 3" to 6" apart. Water comes to the manifold from the supply line, then is routed through the proper control valve to the circuit by the controller. The manifold can be mounted above ground or buried (with the control valves projecting above ground), then covered with a box. 

Next, dig V-shaped trenches at least 8" deep for the pipe. The trenches should be straight and reasonably level. To tunnel under a sidewalk, connect a piece of galvanized pipe to a garden hose and turn the water on full force to wash away the soil. Then cap a length of PVC pipe with duct tape and drive it through the hole.

Tap into the water supply line (Figs. 2, 3, 4) by installing a tee at one of three locations: 1) just past the water meter in the basement; 2) just behind an outside hose bibb; or 3) along the main supply line before it enters the house, but past the outside meter (if there is one). Install a stop-and-waste valve as an emergency shutoff and to be able to drain the system for the winter. Install the shutoff valve just past the connection to the supply line, then run pipe to the manifold. Once the PVC connections are cured, turn the water on for a minute or two to flush the system.

Install antisiphon valves onto the control valves to prevent contaminated water from getting back into your home's supply lines (Fig. 5).

Lay the pipe in the trenches, then begin making connections. Before you install each threaded riser tee, screw the riser in place temporarily. As you install the riser tees, hold a carpenter's square against the riser to make sure the tee is set so each riser will be at a 90-degree angle to the ground.

Once the pipes are assembled and the connections cured, install the risers (Fig. 6). Cut them carefully to make sure the sprinkler heads will be at the correct height. Once the risers are in place, attach the sprinkler heads (Fig. 7).

Finally, mount the controller (typically, the controller goes in the garage), and run low-voltage wires to the control valves. Set the watering controls for each circuit, then test the system by opening and shutting each circuit. Backfill the trenches, then water the soil down thoroughly to compact it. Add more soil until each trench is slightly raised, then replace the sod or reseed.

The type of material you use to install your sprinkler system will depend on the manufacturer's recommendations. Some systems use flexible pipe, plastic or metal inserts, and clamps. Other systems use PVC pipe and fittings. This sprinkler system requires PVC pipe. Be sure to use PVC cleaner on any PVC pipe project. Fig. 9 illustrates how to connect the PVC pipe.

Step 1–Cut the pipe to length, then remove any burrs with a pocket knife. The cut should be as square as possible to insure a leak free installation.

Step 2–Take the gloss off both ends of the connection (the end of the pipe and the inside of the fitting) with a piece of emery paper, then wipe both ends with PVC cleaner.

Step 3–If necessary (e.g., for riser tees), fit the pieces together dry and mark the alignment with a felt tip pen.

Steps 4 & 5–Finally, coat both surfaces with PVC solvent and connect the pieces together as far as you can and then give the pipe a 1/4 turn to spread the solvent. Wait two hours before running water through the pipe.

Before beginning any electrical repair, shut off the power. Remove the fuse or trip the breaker for the circuit you will be working on in your service panel. Use a neon tester to be sure the power is off. If there is any doubt, you can remove the main fuse or trip the main breaker. Remember: Removing the main fuse or tripping the main breaker will usually shut off the power to the entire house.

Electrical wires are color coded to prevent wiring errors.

White wires almost always connect to other white wires or to chrome terminal screws on switches and receptacles.

Some wiring devices–such as receptacles–are back-wired by pushing the bare wire end into spring grip holes. These wiring devices are plainly labeled to show which color goes into each spring grip hole.

Switches are nearly always connected into black wires in cables. The only exception is where a cable is extended, making it necessary for the white wire to play the role of the black wire. When this is necessary, the white wires should be painted black to prevent future wiring errors.

Study the wiring diagram in Fig. 1. This will help you understand the basic principles of good wiring. Also, find a good electrical how-to book. It's one book every homeowner should keep on hand for ready reference.

Most home wiring is complete with either No. 14 gauge or No. 12 gauge wiring. No. 14 is the smallest wiring permitted under most codes.

Always use the same size cable for a continuation of any extended wiring circuit.

New wiring should be connected to the last outlet in a run of cable. To locate the last outlet in the run, shut off the current. Remove the cover plates from each outlet on the circuit. The last outlet in the run has wires connected to only two of the four terminal screws (Fig. 2).

The two unused terminal screws on the last receptacle serve as a starting point for wiring to a new outlet.

Shut off the power to the circuit you will be working on at the service panel.

Loosen the screws holding the receptacle in the box and remove it, as shown in Fig. 2.

Attach the white wire to the chrome terminal, the black wire to the brass terminal on the receptacle and the bare (or green insulated) wire to the green grounding screw on the receptacle or to the box, if the box is metal.

Use care to match the size of the original cable. If No. 12 wire is used, continue with No. 12. If No. 14 wire is used, use No. 14 for continuing the cable. The size of the cable is usually stamped on the side of the cable.

New wiring can be connected to continue the run beyond the last receptacle (Fig. 3). Note that the new wires are pulled through knockout plugs in the back of the outlet box.

 New wiring can also be tied into a junction box, unless the wiring in the junction box is already at maximum capacity.

Before tying in at a junction box, always trace the cables leading to the box to check the voltage. Be sure you are not connecting a 120-volt outlet to a run of wire providing 240 volts for larger appliances.

To tie in new wiring at a junction box, first shut off the current at the service panel.

Locate the main supply cable coming into the junction box from the service panel. Locate the supply wire by tracing the white wires. All white wires in the junction box will be attached to the white wire on the supply line (Fig. 4).

Knock out the unused plug on the junction box and run the new line from the box as illustrated (Fig. 4). Be sure to use a cable clamp to secure the cable to the junction box.

 You can tie in new wiring at a ceiling light if the light is not controlled by a switch.

Shut off the current at the service panel.

Tie white wires to white wires and black wires to black wires, as illustrated in Fig. 5.

Connect the ground wires as illustrated. If you are using a metal box, attach them to the box as well as the light fixture.

Knock out an opening in the outlet box, and continue the new wiring as illustrated.

Some boxes come with built-in connectors.

Armored cable connectors have inner rims to hold fiber bushings at the end of the cable.

Nonmetallic cable connectors are designed to grip the installation around the cable with a two-screw clamp.

Regardless of the type of cable used, always leave about 6" to 8" of wiring in the box to allow plenty of wire for making easy connections.

You can tighten the nut on either type of cable connector by placing a screwdriver in the notch and tapping the screwdriver lightly.

Always remember that connections must be made in an approved box (Fig. 6). Never connect one cable to another by an open-line splice.

All switch, outlet, and junction boxes must be positioned so they are always accessible.

You can easily remove knockout plugs with a nail punch, screwdriver or metal rod.

Drill a hole through the floor from bottom to top, as illustrated in Fig. 7. Be sure the hole is drilled into the recessed area behind the wall rather than in the open. Be sure to use a bit that's large enough to permit free passage of the wiring cable. 

Run the cable through the newly drilled hole to the desired location for the new receptacle or switch (Fig. 7).

Bring the cable through the opening by using a weight on the end of a string and a wire with a hook on the end (Fig. 8).

Using this same technique, you can add one outlet to another by drilling up through the floor, pulling the cable under the floor, and then running it to the desired position on the opposite wall (Fig. 9). The same wiring can be pulled through for either receptacles or switches.

If your home has an unfinished attic, it may be easier to add new wiring by attaching it to boxes in the ceiling (Fig. 10). In this way, gravity works for you rather than against you.

Attach the cable to the box as previously described.

Cut a hole in the wall at the desired location for the switch or receptacle, and run the cable from the box in the ceiling to the new outlet location (Fig. 10).

Bring the new cable through the wall and ceiling by cutting and drilling holes in and through the wall, the 2x4 plate, and the ceiling (Fig. 11). A special fish tape is available for these types of jobs.

You can connect new cable from an existing outlet to a new outlet on the same wall by running it inside the wall (Fig. 12). Mark the approximate location of the new outlet. Using a stud finder locate and mark the wall studs. Start one stud before the existing outlet and end one stud after the new outlet.

Mark the exact location of the new box. Make it the same height as the existing box. Do not locate it over a stud. Using a drywall or keyhole saw, cut the opening for the new box.

Using a utility knife and a drywall saw, cut a strip of drywall about 3" wide out of the wall, below the outlets. Start at the center of the first stud you marked and end at the center of the last stud; watch for nails as you cut. Carefully remove the drywall strip.

Using a hand or circular saw, make two cuts 1" apart and 3/4" deep in each of the exposed studs. Using a hammer and a chisel, remove the wood between the two saw cuts.

Be sure the power is off to the existing outlet. Remove the cover plate and the receptacle. Remove one of the knockouts in the bottom of the box. Run the new wire behind the wall and up through the knockout in the box. Tighten the clamp and attach the wires. If the box does not have a clamp, place a wire clamp on the new cable. Tighten the screw to hold the clamp on the wire. Be sure the nut is off the wire clamp and run the wire up to the box as before. Feed the threaded end of the clamp up through the knockout, replace the nut and tighten. Replace the receptacle and the cover plate.

On the new box, remove one of the knockouts in the bottom of the box. If the box you are using is a self-clamping box, insert the box into the wall and tighten. If not, insert the box into the wall, insert a Madison hanger on each side of the box, and bend the tabs over into the box to tighten.

Finish running the wire from the existing box through the notches and up behind the wall into the box as before. Clamp the wire and install the receptacle as in Fig. 3. Install the cover plate, turn on the power, and test the circuit with a neon tester. Shut off the power again to safely finish the project.

Nail metal cable protectors to the exposed studs over the notches. Replace the drywall strip you removed earlier. Use the spackling compound and drywall tape to complete the installation.

First, get the exact measurements of the room where the suspended ceiling will be installed. Use special care in measuring any odd-shaped alcoves, bays, etc. 

Draw the exact dimensions to scale on graph paper (Fig. 1), or bring the room dimensions to your local retailer and ask a salesman to assist you in estimating the materials you'll need.

You can choose from either a 2x2 or a 2x4 pattern (Fig. 2). The pattern you pick will determine the material requirements for your ceiling.

For the 2x4 pattern, decide whether you want to install the patterns in a standard or reverse pattern (Fig. 3). Each pattern offers a different appearance.

Now that you've made these decisions, sketch the layout for the planned ceiling on graph paper. You can use the layout in Fig. 1, or purchase graph paper in a variety or stationery store. Regardless of which pattern you select, draw the main tees 4' apart. Position the tees so that the border patterns at the room edges are equal on both sides and as large as possible. Try sketching several layouts before beginning the actual installation to determine which one looks best.

It is important to space the cross tees so the border panels at the ends of the room are equal and as large as possible. If you are using a 2'x4' pattern, space the 4' cross tees 2' apart. For a 2'x2' pattern, add 2' cross tees between the midpoints of the 4' cross tees (Fig. 2).

If the ceiling will be recessed and built-in lighting will be installed, decide where to locate the panels of light and clearly identify them on the drawing.

The drawing will help you pretty accurately estimate the total cost of the materials you'll need. Fig. 4 illustrates a basic plan for estimating costs. Add or delete materials for the job you're planning.

Determine the exact height at which the suspended ceiling will be installed. Allow a minimum of 3" to 4" clearance between the old ceiling and the new ceiling for installation of the ceiling panels. If clearance is a problem, you may want to use fiberglass ceiling panels, which are more flexible. Additional clearance will be required if you are using recessed lighting (Fig.5).

After locating the exact position for the suspended ceiling, use a level to draw a line completely around the room indicating where the wall angle will be applied (Fig. 6). Don't assume the original ceiling is level–use a level for accuracy. Set the wall angle low enough to conceal as many pipes, ducts, etc., as possible.

Fasten the wall angles securely to the wall at all points. Nail them firmly to studs, or use screw anchors or other masonry fasteners on brick or masonry walls (Fig. 7).

Position the wall angle so that the bottom flange rests on the level line you have drawn on the wall. Take the time to do this right!

Overlap the wall angle on inside corners (A, Fig. 8), and miter the wall angle on outside corners (B, Fig. 8). Make a temporary wooden miter box if you don't have one. Cut any needed angles with metal cutting snips or a hacksaw.

If you are going to use recessed lights, install the wiring before putting the suspension wires in place (Fig. 5).

For recessed lighting, you can use 2x 2 or 2x 4 drop-in lighting fixtures, which are specially designed for this purpose. You can also center fluorescent light fixtures over the panels and use a luminous lay-in panel instead of a regular ceiling panel. These lay-in panels now come in several attractive designs.

Refer to your sketch of the room for the location of all main tees (Fig. 1). Main tees should always run at right angles to the joists in the room.

Locate the position of each main tee by stretching a tight line from the top edge of the wall angle on all sides of the room at each position where the main tees are to be placed (Fig. 9).

Now, cut the suspension wires to the proper length. The wires should be 12" longer than the distance between the old ceiling and the new guideline string you have stretched to indicate the position of each main tee.

Locate the first suspension wire for each main tee directly above the point where the first cross tee meets the main tee. Check your original sketch of the room to determine this location.

Be sure the suspension wires are securely fastened. Apply them to the ceiling with screw eyes, screw hooks, nails, or drilling (Fig. 10).

Attach a suspension wire every 4' along the level guideline (Fig. 11). Stretch each wire to remove any kinks and make a 90° bend where the suspension wire crosses the level line.

Most main tees are 12' long and have cross tee slots punched every 12" beginning 6" from each end (Fig. 12).

Refer to your layout sheet to determine the distance from the wall to the first cross tee. Now measure this distance along the top flange of the main tee and locate the slot just beyond this point.

From this slot, measure back the same distance, subtract 1/8" and saw the main tee at that point. The 1/8" subtraction is for the thickness of the wall angle.

If the wall angles are not square, position the cross tee slots accordingly.

When main tees are installed in rooms less than 12' across, cut the main tee to the exact measurement of the room, allowing 1/8" for the thickness of the wall angle (Fig. 13).

For rooms wider than 12', the main tee can be spliced (Fig. 14). Be sure to align the splice so that the suspension wires are correctly positioned. Splice carefully, or all the main tees will be thrown off.

Install the main tees so that they are all level with the wall angle already mounted. Use a long level for this.

Install the cross tees by inserting the ends of the cross tees into the slots in the main tees (Fig. 15). Use the manufacturer's instructions for fitting the cross tees into position.

Determine the location of the cross tees by the pattern you selected–either 2'x2' or 2'x4' (Fig. 2).

Be sure the lock tab on the cross tee is on the outside of the slot (Fig. 15). This attachment is slightly different in some types of tees.

You can remove most cross tees by depressing the lock tab with a screwdriver.

Border cross tees are installed between the wall angle and the last main tee.

Measure from the last tee to the wall angle, allowing 1/8" for the thickness of the wall angle. Cut the cross tees and install them by inserting the connector in the main tee and resting the cut edge on the wall angle.

Your final main and cross tee arrangement will look similar to Fig. 16. The top part of the illustration shows an arrangement of a 2'x4' layout, while the lower half shows main and cross tees arranged for a 2'x2' layout.

Drop the ceiling panels into position by tilting them slightly, lifting them above the framework and letting them fall into place (Fig. 17).

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document has been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document. Ask for Other "Show-How" Instruction Sheets

Step 1:  REPAIRING SMALL DENTS IN WALLBOARD

Objects that come in contact with wall board can cause dents or scratches in the surface. These indentations are easy to repair.

First, sand the surface thoroughly (Fig. 1). This sanding roughens the surface and provides a good base for the joint compound you will use.

Use coarse sandpaper and a good sandpaper block. For large areas to be repaired, use a power sander.

Fill the dent with a good grade of joint compound using a 3" or 4" spreader (Fig. 2). Spread the compound evenly, pressing it firmly into the dented area.

For extremely large dents, allow the compound to dry overnight and then apply a second coat.

When the material is completely dry, sand the area and prime it for a coat of paint or other finish.

Be sure to remove any high or low spots in the patched area with a fine sandpaper.

Step 2:  PATCHING CRACKS IN WALLBOARD

Various types of patching materials are available for patching drywall. These include adhesive and non-adhesive drywall tapes, fast-drying patching compounds and drywall bandages.

Regardless of the type of patching materials you use, read the manufacturer's instructions carefully and follow each step as suggested. Some patching compounds dry quickly, while others require longer periods to dry.

Be sure the cracked area to be patched is completely clean and dry. Remove all dirt from the area and clean out all cracks.

Apply the patching plaster with a wide and flexible putty knife (Fig. 3). Apply the compound by working across the crack with strokes in both directions. This method is the best way to work the patching plaster into the crack.

Force the patching material into the crack with strong, firm strokes (Fig. 4). Examine the crack after each stroke to ensure that enough material is applied at all points.

The knife should bend with pressure as you draw it along the cracked area. Repeat the passes as often as necessary to force the material well into the cracked surface.

Use the putty knife as a scraper to remove any surplus material (Fig. 5). Move it along the cracked area gently to scrape away the surplus material that was applied by the double strokes shown in Fig. 3.

You may want to dip the putty knife into water and make a final pass along the repaired area (Fig. 6). Touch up any areas that need more patching material.

After the patched area has dried completely, sand and prime it to prepare for the finish you desire.

Step 3:  PATCHING SMALL HOLES IN WALLBOARD

You can repair small holes, up to 4" to 6", in drywall using drywall bandages. To make a drywall bandage, use a keyhole saw to make the hole into a square or a rectangle (Fig. 7). Cut a piece of drywall the same shape as the hole. It should be 2" longer and 2" wider than the hole.

Lay the piece of drywall down on a flat surface, shiny side down. Measure 1" from all four edges and draw a line. This should form a shape the side of the hole.

Using a straight edge and a utility knife, cut through the drywall to the bottom layer. Do not cut the bottom layer of paper. Using a putty knife, remove the top layer of paper and core all the way down to the bottom layer of paper (Fig. 8). Be careful not to tear the bottom layer.

The cut part of the patch should fit into the hole. The paper edge should cover about 1" around the hole. Apply a thin layer of patching compound around the hole. Place the patch into the hole (Fig. 9). Using a putty knife, work the paper edge down into the compound. Feather the edges of the compound and allow it to dry. You may need to sand lightly and apply a second layer of compound to finish the repair.

Step 4:  PATCHING LARGE HOLES IN WALLBOARD

Larger holes, up to 12", require a slightly different repair which provides more support. Again use a keyhole saw to form the hole into a square or a rectangle (Fig. 7).

Cut a patching piece of wallboard that's about 2" larger than the hole to be repaired (Fig 10). Punch or drill two small holes through this piece of board and tie a stick to it, as illustrated. Allow for about 8" between the board and the stick.

Apply a smooth coat of good grade adhesive all around the edges of the piece of patching material.

Insert the patching board through the hole and position it so the adhesive fits firmly against the solid area around the hole.

Now turn the stick clockwise twisting the string and increasing pressure against the patch board at the rear of the hole (Fig. 11). When the string has been thoroughly tightened, it will hold the board firmly into place until the adhesive dries.

Give the adhesive time to dry. Then fill in the area with a good grade of patching plaster (Fig. 12). Leave the stick and the string in position during the patching process.

You may need to apply two or three layers of patching plaster to build up the patched area. Always allow one layer to dry before applying another.

Remove the stick and string just before the material dries. Smooth out the area then let the patch dry thoroughly.

When the area is completely dry, sand off all high spots and apply a prime coat for paint or other finish (Fig. 13).

Use a fine grade of sandpaper and a sanding block for the finish sanding work.

Larger holes in wallboard require some type of supporting brace for the patch.

Use a short piece of 2x4 cut to the proper length as a supporting brace for patching a large hole in plasterboard (Fig. 14).

Cut two pieces of 2x4 to a length about 8" longer than the distance across the hole.

Apply a good grade of cement to one piece of 2x4, then insert it through the hole. Tie it to another piece of 2x4 holding it parallel in front of the wallboard.

Allow the pieces of 2x4 to remain tied in this position until the cement dries. Most cements require about one hour to dry.

Next, remove the supporting piece of 2x4 in front of the wallboard by untying the string (Fig. 15). The cement will hold the back piece of 2x4 firmly in position, providing a support brace for the wall patch.

Now cut a patch block to the exact dimensions of the sawed-out area (Fig. 16). The block will be slightly smaller than the hole itself, but cut it to fit as tightly as possible.

Apply cement to the back of the patch block and the support brace, then put the patch into position in the hole.

Use a firm putty knife or patching spatula to apply joint compound all around the patch board (Fig. 17).

Work the patch compound thoroughly into all cracks. Scrape away any surplus material, then allow the patched area to dry completely.

When the area has completely dried, use a regular sanding block and a piece of fine sandpaper to sand away any high areas on the patched surface (Fig. 18).

A prime coat can now be applied to prepare the wall for painting.

Check your provincial and local codes before starting any project. Follow all safety precautions. Information in this document been furnished by the National Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and associated contributors. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and safety. Neither NRHA, any contributor nor the retailer can be held responsible for damages or injuries resulting from the use of the information in this document.

Every entry and utility door in the house should be a solid door–either stile-and-rail construction or a solid-core flush door. As a rule, doors that swing into the house are more secure than outswinging doors, both because the gap between the door and jamb is not exposed and because the hinge pins are on the inside. 

If you have an outswinging door, make sure it has at least one nonremovable pin hinge. You can tell by opening the door and looking at the hinge pins. A nonremovable pin hinge has a set screw in the pin that prevents the pin from being removed. 

All entry doors should also be fitted with deadbolts (Fig. 2). There are two common types of deadbolts–single cylinder and double cylinder. Single-cylinder deadbolts are operated with a key from the outside and a turn button inside. Double-cylinder deadbolts must be operated with a key from both sides. 

Sliding patio doors (Fig. 3) are notoriously easy to break into. One of the first things a burglar looks for is a door that is loosely fitted and wiggles a little, and sliding doors can't be built to be totally tight. 

Modern patio doors often have a three-point locking system that throws a hardened bolt up into the head jamb and down into the sill to supplement the hook-type lock at the handle. If you have an older patio door, one inexpensive alternative is a hinged bar mounted on either the active door panel or the jamb that swings down to wedge the door closed (Fig. 3).

The general rule of thumb is that all sliding windows (both horizontal sliders and single- or double-hung) are more difficult to secure than swinging casement or awning windows. Most modern swinging windows have cam locks that draw the sash tightly into the frame. 

Obviously you want to make sure all window locks operate properly, but you can add to the security of sliding windows by installing key locks in place of the standard sash locks (Fig. 4).

Outdoor lighting (Fig. 5) is one of the best deterrents available–as well as an important safety feature. Low-voltage lighting kits can be installed in an afternoon, while adding to the appearance of your home. Most operate from a transformer that can be plugged into any standard electrical outlet, so no wiring is required. With the development of more reliable solar cells and batteries, solar outdoor lighting is now more dependable and even easier to install than the low voltage lighting systems. On most of these types of lights, you mount them, allow them to charge up and then turn them on. The only problem associated with many of them is placing them in the wrong location so they don't get enough light. 

Make sure, too, that the entire area around your house can be well lighted. Install floodlights over the driveway and at the back of the house; if you can position lights so every door and window in the house is covered, you can scare away nearly any burglar. 

Once you have the basics taken care of, then a home security system may be a worthwhile investment. Modern systems operate from your existing wiring. They allow you to operate incandescent lights and appliances remotely, whether they are plugged into an outlet or wired to a wall switch.

The system consists of the following components: 

The controller sends signals to each remote module individually or to all modules at once. Wireless controllers are also available. 

Plug-in modules are plugged into standard electrical outlets. Then the device is plugged into the module (Fig. 6). The lamp module is designed for low-amperage use and includes a dimmer function. The appliance module is designed for heavier amperage use such as televisions, coffee makers and other small appliances.

A wall-switch module replaces the standard wall switch and allows the system to control any incandescent light wired into the home's electrical system. Modules are available for both single-pole and three-way switches.

A motion detector can be programmed to turn on any lamp plugged into a base module. 

A motion-detector-controlled floodlight can be programmed to varying degrees of sensitivity and to turn off again a specified amount of time after it comes on (Fig. 7). 

Setting up the system depends somewhat on your individual needs, although there are some basic guidelines you may want to follow. As a rule, the best way to deter burglars when you're away is to make them think you're home. If your system allows you to control eight modules, for example, consider the following locations: 

A front porch light or floodlights over the garage door. These lights should be set to go on in the evening at dusk and off again around 10 p.m. 

A main living room light. This light should be programmed to go on in the early morning, say from 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., then off and on again at 6 p.m. until about 10 p.m. 

A television. Your TV can be programmed to go on and off at varying times during the day and evening; from outside, it can sound like people conversing in the house. 

A kitchen light. It should be set to go on and off again around common mealtimes.